CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Cell- the basic living unit of all organisms. The simplest organism consist of single cells but
humans are composed of multiple cells.
- also defined as the smallest unit of life
 Organelles – specialized structures within cells
*nucleus –an organelle containing the cell’s genetic material
*cytoplasm – the living material surrounding the nucleus and contains many types of
organelles
*cell membrane/plasma membrane – encloses the cytoplasm
(organelles table)
Functions of the Cell:

1. Cell metabolism and energy use.

*Cell metabolism- chemical reactions that occur within cells.
** Energy released during this process are used foe cell activities such as synthesis of
new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production
2. Synthesis of Molecules.
*Cells synthesize various types of molecules like protein, nucleic acids and lipids,
however, not all cells produce the same molecules.
*Therefore: a cell’s structural and functional characteristics are determined by the types
of molecules the cell produce

3. Communication.

*cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another (nerve cells communicate with one another and also with
muscle cells causing muscles to contract.

4. Reproduction and Inheritance.

*each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual. Specialized cell
such as sperms and oocytes transmit that genetic information to the next generation

CELL MEMBRANE

- Or plasma membrane, is the outermost component of a cell. (encloses the cytoplasm

and forms the boundary material between the inside and outside cell.)
- Extracellular-substances outside the cell
- Intracellular or cytoplasmic substances – inside the cell
- It also contains molecules such as cholesterol & carbs
- Selectively permeable …..,,,..
- Functions of Cell Membrane:
1. Supporting the cell contents
2. Acting as a selective barrier that determines what moves into and out of the cell
3. Playing a role in the communication between cells

2 major types of molecules that make up the cell membrane:

1. Phospholipids
2. Proteins
MOVEMENT AROUND THE CELL

- Movement may be passive or active

- Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium ions- found greater intracellular
- Ca2+, Na+, Cl- > found greater concentration extracellular
 Nutrients must enter cells continually and waste products must exit. Because of this
permeability and the ability to transport certain molecules, the cells are able to maintain
proper cytoplasmic concentrations of molecules

Passive Membrane Transport

- Transport Mechanisms:
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion- movement of molecules from a higher concentration area to a lower concentration in
solution
- results from the natural constant random motion of all solutes in a solution
*Solution – composed of 2 major parts: solute and the solvent
*Sollute– substances dissolved in a …predominant liquid or gas, > solvent
Ex: of Diffusion> smoke in a room without air currents
- Diffusion is an important means in transporting substances through the extracellular
fluid and cytoplasm
- Ex: If the O2 concentration in the extracellular area is reduced, not enough O2 will
diffuse into the cell, and the cell cannot fxn normally

Osmosis- diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane, from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration.
-it occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable, selectively permeable, or not
permeable to solutes.
- water follows solutes > water moves to the area with the greater solute concentration
Osmotic Pressure – the force required to prevent the movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane
-a measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a selectively
permeable membrane

Facilitated Diffusion – a mediated transport process, involving membrane proteins such as

channels or carrier proteins, to move substances across the membrane.
-also moves from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
 * 2 classes of cell membrane channel:
1. leak Channel – constantly allow ions to pass through
2. Gated Channels- limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and
closing

Active Membrane Transport

Active Transport - is a process that utilizes membrane proteins to move substances across the
cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of higher concentration.
-requires energy in the form of ATP. If there’s no ATP, the active transport
stops. Ex: the movement of amino acids from the small intestines to the blood (malfunction will
cause serious health conditions

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Endocytosis – uptake of material through the cell membrane by the formation of a vesicle
(membrane-bound sacs that can transport molecules and cells that cannot be transported by
carrier molecules, across the cell membrane)
 Phagocytosis – (cell-eating) often used for endocytosis when solid particles are ingested
- Important means by which WBC take up and destroy harmful substances that have
entered the body
 Pinocytosis – (cell-drinking) distinguished from phagocytosis in that much smaller vesicles
are formed, and they contain liquid rather than solid particles
Exocytosis – (outside) the release of substances from the cell through the fusion of a vesicle
with a cell membrane
Transcytosis – a process by which the material in endothelial cells of blood capillaries are
moved through the cell. During this stage, a substance is taken into the cell by endocytosis, the
vesicle is moved across the cell, and the substance is then released from the cell by exocytosis.
Both uses aTP for the formation of vesicles.

ORGaNELLES
Nucleus – “a little nut/ the stone of a fruit”
-a large organelle within the cell. all cells in the body have nucleus, some have more
than one (skeletal muscle cells), while some loses them as they mature (RBC).
* Contents:
1. Nuclear envelope – separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cytoplasm. It
has an outer and inner membrane that forms nuclear pores (passageways through which
materials can move into or out of the nucleus.
2. Most of the genetic material of the cell that is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes which
contains DNa and proteins
Chromatin- are loosely coiled chromatin
4. Nucleoli – little nucleus. Diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that are
found within the nucleus.
Ribosomes
 Organelles where proteins are produced
 Maybe attached to other organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum. Others not
attached are ‘free ribosomes”
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear
membrane into the cytoplasm
 Rough ER – attached with ribosomes.
 Smooth ER – without attached ribosomes
-site for lipid synthesis and participates in detoxification of chemicals within
cells. In skeletal muscle cells, it stores Ca2+
Golgi apparatus
 aka golgi complex
 consists of closely packed stacks of curved-membrane bound sacs
 it collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by ER
Secretory Vesicles
 defined
 pinch off from the golgi apparatus and move to cell membrane. Its membrane will fuse
with the cell membrane and the contents of the vesicle are released to the exterior of
the cell by exocytosis
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
 Lysosomes - membrane bound vesicles forms from the golgi apparatus that contain a
variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive system
 Pompe Disease – caused by the inability of lysosomal enzymes to break down the
carbohydrate glycogen produced in certain cells
 Peroxisomes – small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids and hydrogen peroxide
Mitochondria
 Are small organelles with inner and outer membranes separated by a space
Cytoskeleton
 Internal framework of the cell
 Consist of protein structures(microtubules,microfilaments,intermediate filaments) that
support the cell. holds the organelles in place and enable the cell to change shape
Centrioles
 Centrosome – a specialized area of the cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubules are formed.
-it contains two centrioles that are oriented perpendicular to each other
- is a small cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules

Cilia, Flagella, Microvilli

 Cilia – eyelash. Project from the surface of the cells
- Numerous on surface cells that line the respiratory tract
- Movements transport mucus,in which dust particles are embedded, upward and away
from the lungs making the lungs clear of debris such as inhaled dust particles
 Flagella – a whip. Have structure similar to cilia but are longer and usually occurs only
one per cell. Ex: There is only one flagellum in sperm cells
 Microvilli – shaggy hair. Specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are supported
by microfilaments. They are abundant in cells that line the intestines, kidneys.

WHOLE-CELL ACTIVITY
- Learn the whole cell activities that determine the characteristics of a functioning cell
and the growth and maintenance of the human body
Gene Expression
- Is the process by which information stored in the genes of DNa molecules directs the
manufacture of the various proteins of our cells (serves as structural components inside
the cell
- Genes – sections of DNa strands
- mRNA – messenger RNA. A complementary RNA produced by the DNA
- tRNA – transfer RNA specialized molecules that carry the amino acids to the Ribosomes
- Gene Expression involve transcription (making a copy of a gene), and Translation
( converting the copied information into a protein)
Cell Cycle
- The cell consists of a series of events that produces new cells for growth and for tissue
repair
- 2 phases of the cell cycle: interphase and cell division
- Interface – non-dividing phase. It is divided into 3 phases:
1. G1 phase – the cell carries out normal metabolic activity
2. S phase – DNA is replicated
3. G2 phase – the cell prepares to divide
- Cell Division – the formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell The cells
necessary for growth and tissue repair are formed through mitosis and the reproductive
cells are formed through meiosis
- each of our body cells except for reproductive cells, contains Diploid
number of chromosomes (46 in humans)
- reproductive cells have haploid number of chromosomes which is half the
diploid number of chromosomes
* These 46 chromosomes are organized to form 23 pairs of chromosomes
* of the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosomes (consists of 2 X chromosomes if the
person is female, and Y chromosomes if male.
*The remaining 22 pairs are called Autosomes
-it occurs through mitosis divided into 4:
Prophase(each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids joined at the centromere
Metaphase – chromosomes align at the center of the cell
Anaphase – chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles
Telophase – the 2 new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is
completed, producing 2 new daughter cells

Mitosis – Most cells of the body except those in reproductive cells divide by mitosis
-a parent cell divides to form 2 daughter cells with the same amount and type of
DNA as the parent cell
Chromatids – 2 genetically identical strands of chromatin (mixture of DNA and proteins),
which is linked by a specialized region called Centromere
Differentiation

- The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions
- Ex: a sperm cell unites with oocyte to form a single cell. during fertilization the cells
divides by mitosis to form 2 cell, which then form into 4 cells and so on. (organ cells)

Apoptosis – programmed cell death. Process by which cell numbers within various tissues are
adjusted and controlled.

-Ex: in adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant number
of cells within the tissue. Damaged or dangerous cells, virus-infected cells and potential cancer
cells are also eliminated by apoptosis