Abdelmalik Essaadi University English Studies

School of Arts and Humanities Semester 2: Grammar 2

Instructor: A. Laabidi
Chapter One: Modals
Course Objectives

This course aims at providing S2 students with the different forms and contexts of use of the
English modals, passive voice, Reported Speech, Conditionals and relative clauses.

Upon completion of the course, Students will be able to:

1. Differentiate between the modals used for possibility, obligation, and necessity and the like by
identifying these types of modals in the language around them.

2. Distinguish between active and passive voice in sentences

3. Understand why active or passive voice is appropriate to use in certain contexts.

4. Recognize the differences between direct and indirect speech

5. Be acquainted with the changes required to Report direct statements in speaking and writing.

6. Identify all types of conditionals.

7. Select second conditional tense for 'impossible' or 'unreal' situations.

8. Learn the definition of relative clauses and the words that signal relative clauses.

9. Understand the role of relative clauses.

10. Demonstrate commanding using the already mentioned grammatical structures in both
speaking and writing.
 Course content

I. Chapter I: Modal verbs

1. Modal Auxiliary verbs

2. Expressing Ability

3. Expressing Permission

4. Expressing Possibility

5. Expressing Obligation/Necessity

6. Expressing Deduction and Assumption

7. Perfect Modals

II. Chapter II: Passive Voice

1. Conjugation for the Passive Voice

2. Passive verb forms

3. Special Passive structures

III. Reported Speech

1. Changes in Tense, Time and Place References

2. Reporting Declaratives, Yes-No Questions, Wh-Questions, Imperatives

3. Reporting Exclamatives

IV. . Conditionals

1. Types of Conditionals

2. Implied Conditions: Omitting If

V. Relative Clauses

1. Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses

Exercises with Key

Chapter I: Modal Verbs.

1. Modal Auxiliary verbs

Verbs can be classified by function into two types:

 a. Lexical verbs: go, teach, learn, walk, get, buy, etc.

b. Auxiliary verbs. These can in turn be classified into three types:

Primary auxiliaries: do, have, be.

Modal auxiliaries: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, ought to. Semi-modal
auxiliaries (also called periphrastic modals): need, dare, used to. would rather, had better.
To understand 'modal auxiliary verbs' better, let us first compare them to ordinary verbs.

a. Modals never take the infinitive to: *to must/ *to will

b. They never add the -s to third person singular in the present: "he cans/ *she mays

c. They never require the-ed ending for the past: *shoulded

d. They never use forms of do or be to make negatives, yes/no questions, or tag questions: you don't
can; instead, they use the word not for the negative: you cannot, she should not. They are used before
main verbs, in tags and short answers as in these examples:

-A: You can speak French, can't you? -A: You shouldn't be here, should you?

B: Yes, I can. B: No, I shouldn't.

e. All modals can refer to the present or the future using the same form, and what is commonly called
the past form of modals like 'could, would' is not really the past.

-Could you give me a ride to university tomorrow?

These forms are truly the past when they are clarified with additional information or through context.

-They couldn't attend the meeting yesterday.

Modals can have different meanings depending on what we want to express: ability, permission,
possibility, etc. This is considered in details in this chapter.

2. Expressing Ability

a. Can is used to talk about ability in the present.

-She can analyze people's handwriting.

-He can't afford to pay the bill. (He doesn't have the ability...)

-She can do computer graphics.

We use can for the future if we are deciding now what to do in the future.

-If we earn some money, we can go on holiday next summer.

 -We can take samples of the lake water tomorrow.

b. Be able to.

-The kids are able to use the computer. (Present)

-Helen is able to read well, even though she's only three. (Present)

-By June she will be able to complete her computer class. (Future)

-I'm afraid I won't be able to come to the disco on Friday. (Future)

-Souad was able to play the piano when she was six. (Past)

-I wasn't able to do one problem. (Past)

c. Could is used to express an ability or opportunity in the past.

-The children could swim when they were quite young.

-After only six months, Ann could play the violin quite well.

-They had a car, so they could travel very easily.

Could is also used for ability in unreal conditions.

-If you spoke a foreign language, you could get a better job.

-If I had time I could help you.

Notice.

Use only was/ were able to talk about specific achievement or a single event in the past. (ability + a
particular action).

-Amine was able to win the Math Prize last year.

-Luckily, Mark was able to get the work done in time. (succeeded in getting...)

-The drivers were able to stop before they crashed into each other. (managed to ...)

Use either could or was/ able to in negative sentences and questions.

-It was foggy, so the plane couldn't/ wasn't able to take off.

-Could you/ Were you able to describe the man to the police.

For forms and tenses other than the present or the past use be able to.

-It's nice to be able to go to the opera. (To-infinitive)

-We were very lucky to be able to live in the country during our childhood.
 -It's been quiet today. I've been able to get some work done. (Present perfect)

-Since he left, none of the other team members have been able to match his enthusiasm.

Practice.

Read these sentences. Complete them with can, could, or be able to. Choose between affirmative and
negative.

1. Stefan is enjoying his computer class. Two weeks ago, he……………………… even use the mouse, but
now he………………………… edit his homework. By next week, he …………………………..do research
on the Internet.

2. Suzan misses her family in Greece. She ……………………….visit them for years, but they just got an e-
mail account, so now they ………………………….keep in touch daily.

3. I…………………….. understand how to set up a presentation. The software instructions don't help. I
think I'll take a professional development course. In a few months, maybe I make
…………………………….that presentation.

4. Mike and I………………………. get along since we started this business. He ………………………work
alone (he needs people), and I………………………..work in a group (I have to work alone). I hope
we………………………… work out our problems soon.

5. When the satellite is launched next week, scientists……………………. investigate the rings around
Saturn in more detail than ever before.

2. Expressing Permission

a. Can.

 We use can to ask for permission.

-Can I use your pen?

-Can I take another biscuit?

-Can we use our dictionaries?

We use can to give permission.

-You can wait in my office if you like.

-She can use the computer if she needs it.

-I'm sorry, you can't borrow the car tonight. (refuse a permission.)

To talk about rules made by someone else.

-Each passenger can take one bag onto the place. (Are allowed...)
 -Can you park in this street on Sundays? (Are you allowed to ...)

b. May.

We use may to ask for permission. (It is rather formal) -May I see the letter?

-May I leave the room, Professor Smith?

To give permission.

-You may telephone from here. (You are allowed to ...)

-You may use my fax machine if you want.

-You may go to the party if you want.

c. Could.

We use could to ask for permission. (It sounds more polite)

-Could I take the test tomorrow? -Could we borrow your ladder, please?

-Could I have a look at your newspaper?

To talk about permission in the past.

-In the 1920s you could drive without taking a test. (You were allowed to ...)

Notice that could is not used to give permission or to refuse permission; instead, we use can't or may not

-A: Could we picnic here? B: I'm sorry. I'm afraid you can't.
-Members may not bring more than two guests into the club,

Practice

Rewrite these sentences using can, could or may,

1. I'd like to talk to you for a minute, Bill. (friendly)

……………………………………………………………………………………………

2. I would like to use your phone. (more polite)

……………………………………………………………………………………………

3. I would like to stop work early today. (formal)

……………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Take my bike if you want to,

……………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Are the children allowed to go into pubs?

……………………………………………………………………………………………

6. I don't want you to come into my room.

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………

7. I would like to speak to Jane, if she's there. (polite)

……………………………………………………………………………………………

8. I would like to have a soda. (friendly)

……………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Are students allowed to use this library?

……………………………………………………………………………………………

10. I would like to pay you tomorrow. (polite)

……………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Expressing Possibility

a. May.

 It can be used for the present or the future to say that something is possible or that it is quite likely.

-She may know the secret. (Perhaps she knows the secret.)

-This may be his last major speech before the election.

-I may go to the cinema tomorrow. (Perhaps I will go to the cinema)

-I'll write the date of the meeting in my diary, otherwise I may forget it.

b. Might.

 It is used in the same way as may for the present or the future.

-When Frank gets a job, I might get the money back.

-The news might come as a shock to many of the people present.

-There might be some cake left. I'll go and look.

c. Could,

 Could can also be used to say that something is possible.

-The story could be true, I suppose. (Possibly it is true)

- You could win a million dollars. (Possibly you will win...)

-"Why isn't Tim here yet?' 'It could be because his mother is ill again.

d. Can.

 We use can in affirmative sentences when we talk about a more general possibility.

-The temperature can sometimes reach 40 C in August.

-The roads can be blocked if it keeps snowing.

Notice that after may/ might/ or could, we can use a continuous form (be + an ing-form)

-That man may/ might be watching us. (Perhaps he is watching us)

-Sarah may might be working late tonight. (Perhaps she will be working...)

-I'm not sure where Said is. He could be playing football. (Possibly he is playing…)

In negative sentences, the meaning of may not and might not is different from that of could not

-Ann may not get the job.

-I might not finish the work tomorrow. (Something negative is possible)

-There are plans to rebuild the town center, but it can't couldn't happen for another ten years. (It is
impossible that it will happen...)

-There are plans to rebuild the town center, but it may not/ might not happen for another ten years.
(it is possible that it won't happen...)

We do not use may to ask a question about the possibility of something happening. Instead we use, for
example, 'could (n't)' or the phrase 'be likely.

-Could it be that you don't want to leave?

-Are you likely to be visiting Spain again this summer?

It is possible to use might in this type of question, but it is rather formal.

-Might they be persuaded to change their minds?

Practice,

In which of these sentences is it possible to use can?

1. The butterfly………………………………..be recognized by the orange streaks on its wings.

2. 'She's probably on holiday," "Yes, you ............ be right."

3. Peter……………………. have a big screwdriver. I'll go and ask him.

4. Infections ………………………sometimes actually be a very successful experience.

5. Moving to a new job……………………………… be a very stressful experience.

6. I think Michael...................... enjoy himself if he joins the football club

7. This 17th century chair………………………………. be of interest to you.

8. The seeds from this plant ………………………be up to 20 centimetres long.

9. With the factory closing next week, he .............................. lose his job.

11. Around this time of year, eagles..................................... sometimes be seen in the mountains.
4. Expressing Obligation/Necessity

We use must and have to say that something is necessary

a, Must,

-To succeed in your exam, you must work hard.

-You'll be leaving college soon, you must think about your future.

-To stay alive, people must breathe oxygen.

b. Have to.

-Teachers are very busy correcting exams. They have to give marks next week.

-Ahmed has to stay late at work. He has a lot of work to do.

-Everyone has to pass a road test before getting a driver's license.

Notice that when we use the past or the future with will, we need a form of have to:

-Ann had to stay at home and watch the kids last weekend. (Past tense)

-That wasn't very good. You'll have to do better next time. (Future)

In fact, we can use the correct form of have to for all tenses and forms.

-Ali has had to take the bus to school for three years. (Present perfect)

We use have to for most questions. We rarely use have got to or must.

-Do you have to do all the exercises on modals?

-What time will Tom have to come to the meeting tomorrow?

Notice the differences in the meaning of must and have to.

We use must when the speaker decides that it is necessary. We use have to when we want to suggest that
someone else or some outside circumstances or authority makes something necessary.

-I must see the headmaster. (I want to discuss something with him)

-I have to see the headmaster. (He has called me to his office)

Have to is preferred when we talk about an obligation that is part of a habit or that is characteristic of a
person.

-She has to drink two cups of coffee in the morning before she feels awake.

-I have to take an aspirin whenever I have a headache.

-Ann has (got) to have at least eight hours' sleep a night.

c. Ought to and should.

These modals are generally used to express a logical necessity, less strong suggestions. advice and opinion.
-You should/ought to change your car.
-Students should ought to come to class on time.
-You really should/ ought to stop smoking. It's bad for you.

Notice that the same form is used for present, future or past. The negative of should is should not/shouldn't
and that of ought to is ought not/oughtn't.

• Ought to/ Should are used to indicate a correct or logical action.

-They should/ought to install more street lights in the city.

-The government should/ ought to find solutions for transportation systems.

• Unlike must and have to, ought to/ should are used without necessarily knowing if the obligation is being
or will be fulfilled

-We must get ready for the wedding party. (more confidence)
-We should/ ought to get ready for the wedding party. (less confidence)

• Notice that ought to and should, when used with the continuous infinitive, express the idea that the
subject is not fulfilling his/her obligation.

-Amina ought to should be working hard on her thesis.

-The children shouldn't be spending all their time on TV.

With the perfect infinitive, ought to and should are used to express a necessity that was not accomplished or
an action that was neglected.
-You ought to have brought enough money with you on this trip.
-She should have come to the party with her parents.

Notice that when an outside authority gives an advice or a recommendation, we use should

-The manual says that the computer should be disconnected from the mains before the cover is removed.
(rather than... ought to be disconnected)

We also use should not /ought to when we give advice with f

-I should revise my lessons regularly, if I were you.

Practice
Put in must or have to, Choose which is best for the situation
1.I.................... go to the airport. I'm meeting someone.
2. You recently. ...........lock the door when you go out. There've been a lot of breaks-ins recently.
3. Daniel……………………………. Go to the bank. He doesn't have any money
4. You really………………………….. make less noise. I'm trying to concentrate.
5. I think you ………………………pay to park here. I'll just go and read the notice.
6. You really …………………………hurry up, Vicky. We don't want to be late.
7.I …………………………put the heating on. I feel really cold.
II. Complete the sentences with should/ ought to + infinitive or should/ ought to have + past participle. In
which one is ought to NOT possible?
1. This medicine ……………………………..(keep) in a cool place.
2. Here's someone you really…………………………….. (meet).
3. If you're feeling ill, I …………………………(stay) at home today, if I were you.
4. To have got a better mark, you …………………………….. (check) your answers more thoroughly.
5. According to the label, the jam ……………………………. (refrigerate ) after opening.
6. I think you……………………………. (listen) to him. He knew what he was talking about.
7. The information you sent ……………………………. (include) details of courses taken at university.

Necessity: mustn't, needn't, etc.

a. Must not. (mustn't)
We use mustn't to say that something is not allowed or that something is a bad idea (an emphatic/ strong
advice).
-You mustn't smoke in this area.
-You mustn't take your children to this supermarket.
-I mustn't favor some students over others.
-You mustn't put anything on the shelves until the glue has set hard.

b. Need not. (needn't)

We use needn't to say that something is not necessary.

-You needn't bring your umbrella. It's not raining.

-They needn't argue; the topic is not worth it.
-We needn't make sandwiches. There's a supermarket on our way to the lake.
c. Don't have to.

We can also use don't have to express that something is not necessary
-You don't have to dress up for the party. It's not a formal one.
-Mark doesn't have to finish the report today. He can do it at the weekend.
-She doesn't have to buy any glasses. There are many at home
For the past, we use didn't

The food was free. We didn't have to pay

The food was free. We didn't need to pay.

Notice the differences between didn't need to and needn't have.

-Ali didn't need to hurry. He had lots of time. (It was not necessary for him to hurry and he didn't hurry. We
can also use didn't have to
- Ali needn't have hurried. After driving at top speed, he arrived half an hour late. (He hurried, but, in fact,
it wasn't necessary)
-We didn't need to go to the supermarket because we had plenty of food.
-We needn't have gone to the supermarket. We already had a pizza for tonight.
We use didn't need to when something was not necessary, and it was not done. We use needn't have + p.
participle for something we did which we now know was not necessary.

Practice.

I.Complete the sentences. Use mustn't, do not need/ do not have to

1. You ………………………… You drink alcohol when you drive.

2. You………………………..keep medicines where children can get them.
3. You…………………………..to be a member to use the tennis club.
4. You……………………………. to play golf well to enjoy it.
5. Newspapers…………………………………………mislead the public.
6. Children……………………………………..be allowed to run up and down the aisle of the aircraft.
7. You……………………………………be surprised if teachers object to the new curriculum.

II. Underline the more likely answer. If they are equally likely, underline them both

1. You needn't/don't need to close the door. I'm just going out.
2. In most developed countries, people needn't/don't need to boil water before they drink it.
3. Anna has agreed to organize the party, so she said that the rest of us needn't/don't need to do anything.
4. I've brought the car, so you needn't/don't need to carry your bags to the station.
5. You needn't/don't need to have any qualification to be a politician.
6. Now that it has been eradicated, doctors needn't/don't need to vaccinate against smallpox

III. Complete the sentences with either needn't have or didn't need to

1. I bought a car last year, and then a month later I won one in a competition. So
I……………………………..(spend) all that money.
2.I ……………………………………..(have) an interview. They accepted me without one
3. The accident……………………………………..(happen) if only Tom had got his lights repaired when he
said he was going to.
4. I got a lift to the station, so I .................. (take) a taxi after all 5. Sue was feeling a lot better by the
weekend, so we............ (do) her shopping for her.

6. Expressing Deduction and Assumption

We often make assumptions, or "best guesses", based on information we have about a situation. The modal
that we choose depends on how certain we are about our assumption

a. Must
We use must when we are 100 percent certain, when there are no other choices.

-They have more than three cars. They must be rich. (present)
-He didn't come to class. He must be sick. (past)

Notice that we can use have to with the same meaning as must to make assumptions.

-Amal is a brilliant student. She has to be a genius!

-Someone phoned yesterday. It had to be Ahmed.
b. May/ Might.

We use these modals when we are less certain that something is or was possible. When we use may or
might, we can make more than one guess. (We have other choices).

-He knows a lot about medicine. He may/ might be a doctor. (present)

-A: Why hasn't Souad come to the party? B: She may/ might be ill.
-Daniel may/ might not have caught the bus. I expect he missed it. (past)

We can also use could when we are less certain.

-He always gets the best mark. He could be intelligent. (present)

-He didn't find the wallet. Someone could have stolen it. (past)
-He could have forgotten all about the party.

c. Will

We can use will to make assumptions about present actions when we are sure

-Ring his home number. He'll be at home now. (I'm sure he is at home)
-He'll have finished his supper. (I'm sure he has finished...)
-It's no use asking Tom. He won't know

d. Should.

This modal can also be used for assumptions about present or past actions, especially when we are less
confident.

-Said should know the phone number. I expect him to know...)

-The letter should have arrived by now. (I expect it has arrived)

Notice that for negative deduction we use can't or couldn't.

-Tom couldn't have caught the bus. It doesn't run on Sundays.

-You've only spent five minutes on that job. You can't have done it properly

7. Used to. We use used infinitive to talk about past habits and long lasting situations which are now
finished or different.

-I used to play soccer every week. - Aicha used to have a cat.

Used to is only past. For present habits, we use the simple present tense.

-My brother smokes occasionally.

In an informal style, questions and negatives are generally made with do.

-Did you use to smoke? -He didn't use to listen to Oumkaltoum.

-I used not to like Oumkaltoum. (More formal)

Notice that used to can be an adjective meaning 'accustomed". It is often preceded by 'be, become, or get.

-The students are used to this kind of atmosphere.

-It's hard to get used to this whether in the Sahara.

-I hope that you have become used to the university studies.

7.Perfect Modals:

FORM: MODAL + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE OF VERB

a. Could have + past participle is used to express an event that was possible in the past but
didn’t happen
-I could have had an accident last winter. I was driving in a slippery road. But fortunately, I didn’t
have an accident.
-I could have become a businessman. But I became a teacher.
b. Must have + past participle is used to express an opinion that we believe was true
-He must have forgotten. We are not sure he forgot, but we believe this to be true.
-They must have been very hungry. They ate a lot of food.
c. Should have + past participle is used to express criticism (regret)
-He should have gone to the doctor. His health was not improved. It was good for him to go to the
doctor but he didn’t
-Anas didn’t succeed. He should have prepared well for his exams. After getting the results, he
regretted being lazy.
-I should have bought new batteries for my camera. But I didn’t. and now my camera doesn’t work.
d. May have/Might have + past participle is used to express possibility or probability in the
past, but we don’t know if it happened or not
-Michel Jackson died suddenly. He might have died because of drugs.

 Rule: when the action happened in the past and we have to express any function using
modal verbs, we always use this form as we have seen in these examples.
Modal + have + past participle of the verb.

Practice

Choose the most appropriate modal and use it with the verb between brackets in the correct tense.

1 …………………………………..I (speak) to Mrs. Smith, if she's there?

Can-Should-Will-May
2. I……………………………… (not, make) any new friends since I moved here.
can-might be able to-must

3. Bring your umbrella. It...................... (rain) later

must-may-can-should
4. Ahmed..................... (go) to the dentist yesterday
must-need-should-have to
5. The information you sent ……………………… (include) details of courses taken at university.
Should- will – could- must
6. You ……………………(not use) the office fax machine for personal affairs.
have to-could-must-can
7. If you're feeling ill. I ........... (stay) at home today, if I were you.
must-will-should-might
8.I…………………………. (like) going to pop concerts when I was a teenager.
should-could-need-used to
9. The murderer... ……………………(not shoot) his victim where the body was found.
can-must-need-may
10. I took two books along to read as I knew I……………………………….. (wait) a long time for that
train.
may-ought to have to be able to

II. Rewrite the following sentences using appropriate modals without changing the original meaning
of the sentences.

1. The students were expected to work regularly before the exam.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
2. They managed to finish their project before the deadline.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
3. It is not necessary for you to take the bus since it is possible to go on foot. The restaurant is not far.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
4. Perhaps Ahmed didn't catch the train. I expect he missed it.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
5. Was it necessary for you to pay Ahmed to paint the fence?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
6. Fatima didn't come, and she didn't call. I guess she forgot about the meeting
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
7. She hasn't managed to make any new friends since she moved to the new school
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
8. I regretted not cleaning the house instead of going out this weekend. My mother's right I'm just lazy.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..
III. Complete the sentences with the most appropriate modal and use it with the verb between
parentheses. Make sure that both the modal and the verb are used in the correct tense.

1.I………………………………….. (not, make) any new friends since I moved here.

2. According to the manual, you……………………………..(disconnect) the computer from the mains

before the cover is removed.

3. They………………………………… (not, go) to the market; they already had some food for the
weekend.

4. I see her go out, so she…………………………………. (not, be) at home.

5. When Ali was in junior high school, his father ………………………………..(take) him to the country
side on his vacation.

6. You ……………………………………..(finish) your work on this project before you go on vacation.

You'll probably lose your job if you don't.

7.To have got a good mark, you …………………………………(work) regularly since the beginning of the
second semester.

8. When the weather was good, we ………………………………..(go) walking in the hills every weekend.

9.Ahmed ………………………………….(not/hurry). After driving at top speed, he arrived half an hour

late.

10.Despite yesterday's snowballs, we ……………………….(drive) home in less than an hour.

11. Around this time of year, the temperature …………………………………………….(reach) 45° C.

12.She………………………………. (no, come) to Morocco since she left to the United States six years
ago.