CE 434 – IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

Irrigation Implements and Structures

Submitted by:

Cancio, Princess Eufronia

Calongcong, Michael C.

Buloron, Jan Luwilm E.

Kibete, Veegay T.

Saguban, Alvin C.

Benoy, Keneth O.

Submitted to:

Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan, Ph.D.

 October 2024

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION
II. IRRIGATION CANALS

A. Criteria in Designing a Canal

B. Types of Canals (based on canal surface)

III. IRRIGATION CANAL LININGS

A. Types of Canal Lining

B. Advantages of Canal Lining
C. Disadvantages of Canal Lining

IV. IRRIGATION STRUCTURES

A. Main Intake Structure and Pumping Station

B. Conveyance and Distribution System
C. Protective Structures
D. Regulating Structures
E. Water Measurement Structures
F. Drainage Structure

V. IRRIGATION DRAINAGE
VI. REFERENCES
 I. Introduction
Irrigation systems are vital to agricultural productivity, serving as the backbone for
efficient water management. These systems consist of various structures that work together to
control, distribute, and manage water from its source to the roots of crops. Key components
include intake structures that draw water from sources like rivers or reservoirs, conveyance
structures such as canals and pipelines that transport water across distances, and control
structures like gates, valves, and regulators that manage flow and direction with precision.
Diversion structures redirect water into smaller distributaries, while measurement structures like
weirs and flumes gauge flow rates to ensure fair distribution. Drainage structures are essential for
preventing waterlogging and maintaining soil health. Each component plays a significant role in
overcoming geographical challenges and maximizing water use efficiency, transforming arid
landscapes into productive agricultural fields.

The effective use of irrigation water hinges on selecting appropriate structures and tools
tailored to specific land conditions and crop types. Proper land preparation promotes rapid
irrigation while minimizing waste, utilizing tools such as drags, ditch makers, head gates, and
turnout boxes. Careful planning in building and operating these structures is crucial; incorrect
installation or selection can lead to inefficiency. Insights from agricultural bulletins and
experienced farmers emphasize the importance of adapting irrigation strategies to local
conditions, ensuring that each structure serves its intended purpose effectively.

Moreover, the integration of modern technology into irrigation practices has

revolutionized water management. Innovations such as drip irrigation systems, smart sensors for
soil moisture monitoring, and automated control systems enhance efficiency and reduce water
wastage. These advancements not only improve crop yields but also contribute to sustainable
agricultural practices by conserving precious water resources. As we explore the intricacies of
these irrigation systems, we will uncover their designs, the challenges they address, and their
collective impact on global food security and sustainable water use. This journey reveals not
only the engineering marvels behind agricultural success but also the silent yet significant role
they play in sustaining our food systems while adapting to the challenges posed by climate
change and population growth.
 II. IRRIGATION CANALS

Canals, often referred to as artificial waterways, are engineered channels designed primarily
for managing drainage and facilitating water transport. They play a crucial role in flood control
and irrigation, allowing for the calm flow of water under atmospheric pressure, much like
artificial rivers. Constructed from materials such as concrete, stone, brick, or flexible
membranes, these canals are built to withstand challenges like seepage and erosion. They can
also be excavated directly from the ground.

Water for irrigation can be sourced from nearby rivers or stored in tanks and reservoirs.
These artificial waterways not only help manage excess water but also support various forms of
transportation, including water taxis. By creating a network of canals, we can effectively control
water flow, mitigate flooding risks, and provide essential irrigation to agricultural lands. Their
design and construction are tailored to meet specific local needs, ensuring that they serve both
environmental and economic purposes efficiently. Figure 1 illustrates the example of a canal.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/canal-waterway

Figure 1: Canal
 Irrigation Canal - an irrigation canal is a thoughtfully designed system that channels water
from its source—like a reservoir or river—to various users, often stretching over long distances
of tens or even hundreds of kilometers. Its main purpose is to deliver the right amount of water at
the right time while minimizing losses and ensuring that the infrastructure remains intact. This
involves preventing overflows and maintaining
proper water levels for gravity-fed off-takes.
The dimensions of the canal are carefully
calculated to provide sufficient water flow to
agricultural fields, ensuring that crops receive
optimal irrigation. By blending efficiency with
practicality, these canals are essential for
enhancing agricultural productivity and
promoting sustainable water management
practices. Figure 2&3 illustrates the example of irrigation canal.

Source: https://envirokonsult.co.za/irrigation- Source: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/canal-

irrigation-mr-kiran-mane/80442858#22
canal-maintenance-management/
Figure 3: Irrigation Canal
Figure 2: Irrigation Canal

A. Criteria in Designing a Canal

The following details are some key factors to consider when designing a canal:
1. Water Flow and Capacity

 The discharge of water that will flow in the canal, and the capacity of the canal to
pass that drainage are two most important consideration in designing a canal. The
canal had to be large enough to handle the amount of water that would soon be
moving through it, as well as keep it all flowing evenly.
2. Topography and Terrain
 The topography and terrain of the area where the canal will be built will have a
significant impact on its design. To effectively transport water through the terrain
without causing damage or erosion, the canal’s alignment, slope, and depth must
be carefully chosen.
3. Water Quality
 Another critical factor to consider is the quality of the water being transported
through the canal. The canal must be designed to reduce the risk of contamination
while also ensuring that the water is fit for its intended purpose.

4. Safety and security

 If canals are not designed with appropriate safety features, they can pose a
significant risk to public safety. The canal must be designed to prevent accidents
like falls and drownings, as well as to prevent unauthorized access.

5. Environmental Impact

 Canals can have a significant environmental impact, and their design must
account for this. The canal must be designed to have as little impact on the local
ecosystem as possible while also protecting any natural habitats that may be
affected.

6. Maintenance and operation

 Finally, the canal’s design must account for the system’s ongoing maintenance
and operation. The canal must be easy to maintain and operate, with appropriate
access points and monitoring systems in place.
 B. Types of Canals (based on canal surface)

Earthen Canal (unlined canal)

Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed
earth. The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water

loss due to seepage. They also require continuous maintenance in order to control weed growth
and to repair damage done by livestock and rodents. While earthen canals have their
disadvantages, they can still be a viable option in specific agricultural contexts where low-cost,
localized solutions are sufficient to meet the irrigation needs. However, as agriculture evolves
and water conservation becomes more critical, there is a growing trend toward adopting more
efficient and sustainable irrigation methods. As illustrated in Figure 4, the earthen canal is
presented.

Source:https://steemit.com/hede-io/@dwin0603/earth-canal

Figure 4. Earthen Canal

Lined Canals – are earthen canals lined with impermeable materials. Though
relatively expensive, the idea of lining is to prolong the life of the channel.

III. Irrigation Canal Linings

 Canal lining is a layer of impermeable material installed on the bed and sides of a canal to
enhance its lifespan and discharge capacity. Constructing canal lining can help to save up to 60
to 80% of water that would otherwise be lost due to seepage in an unlined canal.

Canal Lining is provided in canals to resist water flow through the bed and the sides of the
canal. It can be constructed using different types of materials such as cement, bricks, boulders,
plastics, compacted earth, concrete, etc. This lining, often made of concrete, clay, or synthetic
materials, not only conserves water but also improves flow efficiency and reduces maintenance
costs, ensuring the long-term sustainability of irrigation systems.

A. Types of Canal Lining

The canal linings can be majorly classified into two categories based on the nature of
the surface:

1. Earthen Type Canal Lining

Earthen type canal linings are further classified into two categories:

Compacted Earth Lining- When earthen materials are present at the site or in-situ,
compacted earth lining is preferred. If the earthen material is not present at the site, this type of canal
lining becomes quite costly. Compacted earthen material is used for lining in this type as the process
of compaction reduces the void size of the soil by displacing water and air. Reduction in void size of
the soil increases the density, shear strength and compressive strength of the soil and reduces its
permeability. This ultimately results in the reduction of the volume and settlement of the surface. In
this type of canal lining proper compaction of soil is needed to get the better results. As illustrated in
Figure 5, compacted earth lining is presented.
 Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 5. Compacted Earth Lining

Soil Cement Lining - This type of canal lining can be constructed using cement, sandy soil
and water which hardens to a concrete-like material. To provide additional strength or to protect
channels. Proper curing of the soil cement lining should be provided, and it should be protected
from weathering for a period of seven days by providing a 50mm layer of soil, straw, or hessian
bags over it and keeping it moistened. As illustrated in Figure 6, soil cement lining is presented.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 6. Soil Cement Lining

1. Hard Surface Type Canal Lining

Hard Surface type canal linings can be further classified into the following categories:

Cement Concrete Lining- These types of canal linings are widely used as they are
hydraulically efficient, tough, durable and relatively impermeable. These canal linings are
suitable for large and small canals with high or low flow velocities. The cement concrete linings
can be reinforced cement concrete lining or plain cement concrete lining.

Source: https://www.yooil.co.in/blog/dive-into-canal-lining-types-a-comprehensive-guide
 Figure 7. Cement Concrete Lining

Brick Lining or Tile lining- In this type of canal lining, bricks or tiles are laid along the bed

and sides of the canal using cement mortars which are used to provide smooth finish after laying
the bricks or tiles. As illustrated in Figure 8, brick lining or tile lining is presented.
Source: https://www.civilconcept.com/types-of-canal-lining/

Figure 8. Brick Lining or Tile lining

Plastic Lining- It is a new method or type of canal lining in which thin plastic sheets are
used to protect the seepage losses of canal water. There are three types of plastic sheets which
are used in this type of canal lining. They are- low-density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride
and high-density polyethylene. Some of the advantages of this type of canal lining are that the
plastic sheets are thin, easy to handle, help in speedy construction and are unaffected by different
chemicals. The plastic film is spread on the prepared subgrade of the soil. V- Trenches are
provided to anchor the membrane on the banks. As illustrated in Figure 9, plastic lining is

presented.
 Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 9. Plastic Lining

Boulder Lining- As the name says, in this type of canal lining several boulders or stone
blocks are used for canal lining. Dressed stone blocks are not present in nature. So, irregular
blocks are dressed according to the requirements. Dressed stone blocks are preferred to rough

stone blocks or boulders because rough stone blocks provide greater resistance to the flowing
water in the canal. Thus, this type of canal lining is preferred where head loss is not an important
consideration and where the stones and blocks are available in abundance and at a moderate cost.
As illustrated in Figure 10, boulder lining is presented.
Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 10. Boulder Lining

Prefabricated Cement Concrete Lining- This type of canal lining is preferred where cheap
labour, easy availability, and transportation of aggregates are present. This type of canal lining is
preferred over in situ concrete lining because better control over moulding, mixing and curing
can be achieved in this type of canal lining. It also has a lesser construction period. As illustrated
in Figure 11, prefabricated cement concrete lining is presented.
 Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 11. Prefabricated Cement Concrete Lining

Asphalt Concrete Lining- In this type of canal lining, asphalt is mixed with sand and
gravel to make a lining material. The thickness of this type of canal lining varies from 2 to 4
inches, and the serviceability varies from 15 to 20 years. Asphalt concrete linings are comparable
to portland cement concrete linings in many respects when properly constructed. These types of
linings can be placed even in freezing temperatures. As illustrated in Figure 12, asphalt concrete
lining is presented.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 12. Asphalt Concrete Lining

Shotcrete lining- The term shotcreting refers to the application of sand cement mortar under
air pressure. A 1-1.5 inches thick coat is durable, but it is more costly than a cement concrete
layer of equal thickness. As illustrated in Figure 13, shotcrete lining is presented.

Source: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/canal-lining

Figure 13. Shotcrete lining

B. Advantages of Canal Lining

Some of the most notable advantages include the following, each offering distinct benefits in
different situations:

o Reduction of Seepage- The major advantage of canal lining is to prevent loss of water
through seepage. Seepage losses from the unlined canals can be 25-50% of the total
 water supplied. Although canal lining is expensive, its attempts to prevent most water
losses from seepage make it justifiable.
o Prevention from water logging- Water logging is caused due to rise in the water table
by the seepage losses from the canals. Water logging affects the groundwater table and
makes the land unfit for irrigation. This problem of water logging can be prevented by
canal lining.
o Increase in Command Area- By the process of canal lining, the seepage losses of the
water for irrigation from the canals are reduced. This helps increase the extent of
irrigation of a field which ultimately increases the command area as the water-carrying
capacity of lined canals is much greater than that of unlined canals.
o Increase in channel capacity- The capacity of a channel can also be increased via
canal lining. Compared to an unlined canal, the surface of a lined canal is often smooth
and permits rapid water flow. The capacity of a channel increases with the flow
velocity. Hence, the lining of a canal will improve the channel capacity. On the other
hand, this increase in capacity also allows for a reduction in the channel dimensions,
maintaining the previous capacity of the unlined canal and thus saving the cost of the
construction.
o Less Maintenance- The maintenance cost of unlined canals is much higher than that
of lined canals. The deposition of silt volume is much higher in unlined canals, which
makes the maintenance cost of unlined canals much higher. Unlike the unlined canals,
the flow of water in the lined canals is high, which does not allow the deposition of silt
easily on the canal bed. Thus, lessening their cost of maintenance. Moreover, weeds
and plants can easily grow on the beds of unlined canals, which affects the velocity of
the flow of water.
o Safety against floods- The bed and sides of lined canals can withstand flooding
conditions while the unlined canals cannot. In the case of unlined canals, the bed and
sides can easily erode away with water during flood conditions, while the bed and
sides of lined canals are protected with a hard stratum, which prevents its weathering.

C. Disadvantages of Canal Lining

Some of the key disadvantages include the following, each presenting unique challenges in various
scenarios:

o Initial investment is high in canal lining.

o Shifting of the outlet is high because it involves dismantling and relaying the lining.
o The construction period of the lined canal is longer.
o Skilled labour and sophisticated construction equipment are required for canal lining

IV. IRRIGATION STRUCTURES

 The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a
conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system. As
illustrated in Figure 14, an irrigation system is presented.
Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 14. An irrigation system

The primary intake structure, also known as the main pumping station, channels water
from its source, such as a reservoir or river, into the irrigation system.
The conveyance system facilitates the movement of water from the main intake structure
or pumping station to the field ditches.
The distribution system ensures that water is transported through field ditches to the
irrigated areas.
The field application system is responsible for the movement of water within the fields.
The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from
the fields.

A. Main Intake Structure and Pumping Station

1. Main Intake Structure

The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system. Its purpose is to direct
water from the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system. As
illustrated in Figure 15, an intake structure is presented.
Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 15. An intake structure

2. Pumping Station
In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a
pump must be used to supply water to the irrigation system. As illustrated in Figure 16, a
pumping station is presented.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 16. A pumping station

B. Conveyance and Distribution System

The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the whole
irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the water flow.
i. Canal characteristics

According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal
(c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f). As illustrated in Figure 17, examples of
canal cross-sections are presented.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 17. Some examples of canal cross-sections

The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is
required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in water level. As illustrated in
Figure 18, a typical cross section of a trapezoid is presented.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 18. A typical cross-section of a trapezoidal

Where;
a = top width of the canal
 a1 = top width of the water level
h = height of the canal
h1 = height or depth of the water in the canal
b = bottom width of the canal
h:w = side slope of the canal
f = free board (=h-h1)

The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the
longitudinal section. As illustrated in Figure 19, a bottom slope of a canal is presented. As illustrated
in Figure 19, a bottom slope of a canal is presented.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#5.2%20conveyance%20and%20distribution%20system

Figure 19. A bottom slope of a canal

ii. Earthen Canals

Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth. The
disadvantage of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water loss due to seepage.
They also require continuous maintenance in order to control weed growth and to repair damage done by
livestock and rodents. As illustrated in Figure 20, an earthen canal is presented.
 Source:https://tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcS1yVkpt4eB9iRnXb_EnIZ5D8gOOH6gX9swAtsL2OC

Figure 20. An earthen canal

iii. Lined Canals

Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth of
weeds. The materials mostly used for canal lining are concrete slabs, brick or rock masonry and asphaltic
concrete. The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined
canals, but skilled labor is required. As illustrated in Figure 21, a lined canal is presented.

Source:https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.auzMfjkUn8TrmRnrPobEQHaFc?w=1110&h=816&rs=1&pid=ImgDetMain

Figure 21. A lined canal

1. Canal Structures

The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose, canal
structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to the
different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields.
 There are four main types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control structures,
crossing structures and water measurement structures.

i. Erosion control structures

Canal erosion

Canal erosion refers to the process where the banks and bed of a canal are gradually worn
away by the flow of water. This can occur due to several factors, including the speed and volume
of water, and the type of soil or material the canal is made of.

Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as the following example will
show.

A cardboard sheet is lifted on one side 2cm from the ground. A small ball is placed at the edge of the
lifted side of the sheet. It starts rolling downward, following the slope direction. The sheet edge is now
lifted 5cm from the ground, creating a steeper slope. The same ball placed on the top edge of the sheet
rolls downward, but this time much faster. The steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the ball. As

illustrated in Figure 22, the relationship between slope and velocity is presented
Source:https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.auzMfjkUn8TrmRnrPobEQHaFc?w=1110&h=816&rs=1&pid=ImgDetMain

Figure 22. The relationship between slope and velocity

Water poured on the top edge of the sheet reacts exactly the same as the ball. It flows
downward and the steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the flow.

Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities. Soil particles along the
bottom and banks of an earthen canal are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and
deposited downstream where they may block the canal and silt up structures.
Drop structures and chutes

Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on steeply sloping
land to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion. These structures permit the canal to be
constructed as a series of relatively flat sections, each at a different elevation. As illustrated in Figure
23, longitudinal section of a series of drop structures velocity is presented.

Source:https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.auzMfjkUn8TrmRnrPobEQHaFc?w=1110&h=816&rs=1&pid=ImgDetMain

Fig. 23. Longitudinal section of a series of drop structures

Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one. In a chute,
the water does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal section. Chutes are used where
there are big differences in the elevation of the canal.

ii. Distribution control structures

Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within
the irrigation system and on the farm. A water control structure is a water management system
that conveys water, controls the direction or rate of flow, or maintains a desired water surface
elevation.

Types of Distribution Control Structures

a. Division boxes
 Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more canals or
ditches. Water enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through openings on
the other sides. These openings are equipped with gates.

Source:https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.auzMfjkUn8TrmRnrPobEQHaFc?w=1110&h=816&rs=1&pid=ImgDetMain

Fig. 24. A division box with three gates

a. Turnouts

When water is to be taken from a lateral channel into a field distribution channel or from a
channel into a field, a turnout is used. Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They

divert part of the water from the canal to a smaller one. Turnouts may be portable or built in.
They are sometimes equipped with gates to control the flow of water. The most common
turnouts are spiles, and siphon tubes.
Source:https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.auzMfjkUn8TrmRnrPobEQHaFc?w=1110&h=816&rs=1&pid=ImgDetMain

Fig. 24. The use of siphons Fig. 25. The use of spiles

c. Checks
 To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to raise the water
level in the ditch. Checks are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to
raise the upstream water level. Checks can be permanent structures or portable.

Source:https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.auzMfjkUn8TrmRnrPobEQHaFc?w=1110&h=816&rs=1&pid=ImgDetMain

Figure 26. A permanent concrete check and a portable metal check

iii. Crossing structures

It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides, and natural depressions.
Crossing structures, such as flumes, culverts, and inverted siphons, are then required.

a. Flumes

Flumes are man-made open channel or structure designed to carry water from one location to
another, often over difficult terrain or across valleys. Flumes can be constructed from various materials,
such as wood, concrete, or metal, and are usually elevated or supported to allow water to flow freely by
gravity. They are also used in hydraulic engineering to measure the flow rate of water.
 Source: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-flume.html
Figure 26. A flume supported by assembled logs
b. Culverts

Culverts are used to carry the water across roads. The structure consists of masonry or concrete
headwalls at the inlet and outlet connected by a buried pipeline.

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culvert#/media/File:Feccia_Culvert_2011_SE.jpg
Figure 27. A multiple culvert assembly in Italy

c. Inverted siphons

When water must be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the canal bottom,
an inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet and outlet connected by
pipeline. Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across wide depressions.

Source:https://knowyourwaternews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/2022-04-CAP-Siphon-Infographic-thumb.png
 Figure 28. Cross-section of an Inverted Siphon

C. Protective Structures
A protective structure refers to various types of constructions designed to safeguard water
management systems from natural forces and human activities. These structures help maintain
the integrity of irrigation systems, control erosion, and protect water quality.
1. Drop Structures
Grade-control structures, also known as drop structures, are designed to decrease the slope of
a channel. They help stabilize the channel’s banks and bed by slowing down water flow and
dissipating energy. Common types of drop structures include log and timber structures,
corrugated pipe grade-control structures, gabions, and weirs. However, the effectiveness of these
structures diminishes as the size of the stream increases.
2. Gravity Walls

Gravity walls are substantial structures that depend on their own weight to hold back soil.

a) Concrete wall – These walls are designed to prevent the development of tension, eliminating
the need for reinforcing steel in their construction.

b) Masonry wall – This type of wall is often used for building large-scale walls.

c) Gabion wall – These are baskets made from metal mesh or geotextiles, filled with stones, and
commonly used in hydraulic structures.

3. Cantilever Walls
This refers to a reinforced concrete foundation with a stem wall cantilevered upward from it.
The stem is engineered to withstand lateral earth pressures and hydrostatic forces. The soil above
the base adds mass to help resist movement. The stem of the wall can be strengthened either by
buttresses positioned in front of the wall or by counterforts placed behind it.
4. Hardpoints

Hardpoints are stone-filled structures positioned along an eroding bank line, extending short
distances into the river channel. These structures include a root section for added stability. Most
of the hardpoint remains hidden, with the lower portion submerged underwater and covered with
rock. The upper section is topped with soil and planted with native vegetation.

5. Retards
These structures are positioned near the toe of the bank slope, running parallel to the
streamflow. Their purpose is to reduce the water velocity behind the structure. They are versatile,
adaptable to various conditions, and generally more cost-effective.
 These protective structures are crucial for effective water management, ensuring the
sustainability and efficiency of irrigation systems.

D. Regulating Structures
Regulatory works, or canal regulation structures, are hydraulic systems built across canals
to provide full control over water flow in irrigation systems. These structures are essential for the
efficient operation and safety of irrigation channels.
1. Canal Fall

A canal fall is a solid masonry structure built in a canal when the natural ground slope is
steeper than the intended channel bed slope. If the slope difference is minor, a single fall can
be implemented; for greater differences, multiple falls are placed at regular intervals.

Source: https://www.aboutcivil.org/sites/default/files/2017-11/canal-falls.jpg
Figure 29. Canal Fall

The placement of a canal fall depends on the canal's topography and the cost of excavation
or filling. These factors will determine the fall's location. By analyzing the topographic
conditions, we can create an effective and economical type of fall. It's crucial to consider costs,
as imbalanced earthwork upstream and downstream can make the project less economical.
Irrigation canals are designed with a specific bed slope to prevent silting or scouring.
However, if the terrain requires significant filling to maintain this slope, it is avoided by
installing a hydraulic structure at points where the bed level changes. This structure, known as a
canal fall or drop, lowers the bed level to keep the designed slope. Beyond the fall, the canal
resumes its intended slope. The water falling at the canal fall possesses surplus energy, and the
structure is designed to dissipate this energy effectively.

Types of Canal Falls and their Importance

a. Ogee Canal Falls
The ogee curve combines convex and concave shapes, and an ogee fall gradually
integrates both. This smooth blend ensures a seamless flow transition and reduces impact. When
the natural ground level of a canal shifts suddenly to a steeper slope, an ogee fall is

recommended. Stone pitching is used on both the upstream and downstream sides of the fall for
stability
Source: https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.ojkB40X08LskWECnipv9SQHaFj?rs=1&pid=ImgDetMain

Figure 30: Ogree Canal Falls

b. Rapid Canal Falls

A rapid fall features a long, sloping glacis and is built when the natural ground surface is
flat and extended. It is constructed with a bed of rubble masonry, finished with a cement mortar
in a 1:3 ratio. Curtain walls are placed at both the upstream and downstream sides to maintain the
slope of the bed. Rapid falls are relatively expensive to construct.

Source:https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/canal-falls-types-importance/12894/
 Figure 31: Rapid Canal Falls

c. Stepped Canal Falls

As the name suggests, a stepped fall consists of vertical steps spaced at regular intervals. It
is a modified version of the rapid fall and is ideal for canals where the upstream is significantly
higher than the downstream. The two levels are connected by introducing vertical steps or drops.

Souce:https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pWXPGpljCT4/YLJQ6_2QdgI/AAAAAAAABlc/
UwdSJViZFFANjnO26eARCUXGMy2aQXqPACLcBGAsYHQ/s528/Stepped%2BFall.JPG

Figure 32: Stepped Canal Falls

d. Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls

In trapezoidal notch falls, a high crested wall is constructed across the channel with
trapezoidal notches built into the wall. These falls are highly economical and well-suited for low
discharge conditions. Due to their simplicity and effectiveness, trapezoidal falls have become
widely used in modern times.
Souce:https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.18f8fc69f5116859fc5774fafe8ae49a?rik=eocZq62FTxYCVQ&riu=http%3a%2f
%2ftheconstructor.org%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f08%2ftrapezoidal-notch-canal-
falls.jpg&ehk=RQvbLgfyWKEfOk9LgsXcc1B7dz%2bJ2nIdU%2bu98JtRBhQ%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0

Figure 33: Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls

e. Well Type Canal Falls
Well type falls, also known as syphon drop falls, involve the construction of an inlet well
with a pipe at the bottom on the upstream side. This pipe transports water to a downstream well
or reservoir. If the discharge capacity exceeds 0.29 cubic meters, a downstream well is
recommended; otherwise, a reservoir is more suitable.

Source:https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a10057f51d3749e7332354a466128048?rik=2qSIWAHeykpeTA&riu=http%3a%2f
%2ftheconstructor.org%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f08%2fwell-type-canal-falls.jpg&ehk=6dMQaKQl
%2bsSgI5mFLKAEDRtanq6820UHuXSfig887qU%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0

Figure 34: Well Type Canal Falls

f. Simple Vertical Drop (Sarda) Falls

A simple vertical drop fall, or Sarda fall, consists of a single vertical drop that allows
upstream water to fall directly, creating a sudden impact on the downstream. The downstream
acts as a cushion, helping to dissipate excess energy. This type of fall was first tested in the Sarda
Canal in Uttar Pradesh, India, which is why it is also known as the Sarda Fall.
 Source:https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/vertical-drop-canal-falls.jpg?w=1170&ssl=1

Figure 35: Simple Vertical Drop (Sarda) Falls

g. Straight Glacis Canal Falls

This modern construction involves building a raised crest across the canal with a gently
sloping, straight inclined surface extending from the crest to the downstream. Water from the
upstream flows over the raised crest and descends onto the inclined surface, where its energy is
effectively dissipated.

Source: https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/straight-glacis-canal-falls.jpg?w=1170&ssl=1

Figure 36: Straight Glacis Canal Falls

h. Montague Type Canal Falls

The Montage fall is similar to the straight glacis fall, but instead of a straight glacis, it
features a parabolic shape. This design introduces a vertical component to the water's velocity,
enhancing energy dissipation to a greater degree.
Source: https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/montague-type-canal-falls.jpg?w=1170&ssl=1

Figure 37: Montague Type Canal Falls

i. English (Baffle) Canal Falls

In this design, the straight glacis fall is extended into a baffle platform with a baffle wall.
This configuration is suitable for any discharge level. The baffle wall is built near the toe of the
straight glacis at a specified distance and height. Its primary purpose is to create a hydraulic
jump from the straight glacis to the baffle platform.

Source: https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/english-baffle-falls.jpg?w=1170&ssl=1

Figure 38: English (Baffle) Canal Falls

2. Canal Head Regulators

Canal head regulators are structures constructed at the entrance (the head) of the canal
where it takes off from a reservoir.
Source:https://sl.bing.net/kwOxZiEp3oy

Figure 39: Canal Head Regulators

The regulator serves the following purposes:

a. It regulates the flow of irrigation water entering into the canal.

b. It can be used as a meter for measuring the discharge.
c. It regulates and prevents excessive silt entry into the canal.

3. Cross Regulator

A cross regulator is a hydraulic structure constructed across the canal to regulate the
irrigation water supplies. It may be constructed across any type of canal main, branch, or
distributary.

The following considerations make it necessary to construct a regulator across the canal:

1. When due to inadequate supply, the water level is lowered, the off-taking channels do not get
their proper share. A cross regulator is provided to raise the water level.
2. Sometimes it becomes necessary to carry out some repair works on a canal. The cross
regulator if existing above the reach of the canal, it can be closed and repairs can be done
efficiently.
3. Sometimes, it is necessary to close the canal below a particular point. Say when there is no
demand for irrigation water during a particular period.
4. When the costly headworks are not constructed in the initial stages, the cross- regulator helps
regulate the canal supplies.
5. Cross regulators divide long canal reach into smaller ones and make it possible to maintain
the reach successfully and efficiently. For efficient functioning they should be spaced 10 to 13
km apart on the main canal and 7 to 10 km on the branches.
4. Distributary Head Regulator

It is a hydraulic structure constructed at the head of a distributary.

Source:https://image.slidesharecdn.com/wrepresentation3-151029015942-lva1-app6892/95/design-of-canal-regulator-using-html-7-638.jpg?
cb=1446084060

Figure 40: Distributary Head Regulator

This regulator performs the same functions as that of a head regulator:

1. It regulates the supply of the distributary.

2. It can be used many times as a meter.
3. It is also a silt-selective structure.
4. The distributary head regulator controls the flow in the distributary.

By closing the gates distributary can be dried to carry out repairs or maintenance
works.

E. Water Measurement Structures

The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution and
application. By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is applied during
each irrigation.

In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer, water measurement
provides a basis for estimating water charges.
 The most commonly used water-measuring structures are weirs and flumes. In these
structures, the water depth is read on a scale which is part of the structure. Using this reading, the
flow-rate is then computed from standard formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared
specially for the structure.

a. Weirs

• In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an
opening with fixed dimensions cut in its edge. A small barrier built across a river,
stream, or canal to control the flow of water. Weirs are commonly used in irrigation
systems to divert, store, or regulate the distribution of water for agricultural purposes.
The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular.

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 41. Rectangular Weir

 S
ource:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 42. Triangular Weir

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 43. Trapezoidal Weir

b. Parshall flumes

Parshall flumes is an economical and accurate way of measuring water flow in open
channels and nonfull pipes. It is used to measure volumetric flow rate in industrial discharges,
municipal sewer lines, and influent/effluent flows in wastewater treatment plants.

The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main
sections: (1) a converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat
section and (3) a diverging section at the downstream end.
 Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth readings
are taken on one scale only (the upstream one) or on both scales simultaneously

Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 44. Parshall Flume

c. Cut-throat flume

The Cutthroat flume is a class of flow measurement flume developed during 1966/1967
that is used to measure the flow of surface waters, sewage flows, and industrial discharges.

The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only
converging and diverging sections. Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a flat
bottom. Because it is easier to construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often preferred to
the Parshall flume.
 Source:https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%2

Figure 45. Cut-throat Flume

F. Drainage Structure
Drainage structures used on streets and highways collect water, transferring it away from
the road. These often consist of curbs and curb inlets, gutters, culverts, catch basins and drop
inlets. Their purpose is to keep roadways free of water, draining into ditches and underground
structures, and transferring to creeks rivers.

Source: https://camerons-inc.com/services-2/irrigation-and-drainage/

Figure 46. Example of a Drainage Structure

 The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the
groundwater reservoir. As a result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table or

simply water table) rises. Following heavy rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the
groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the rootzone.

Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e07.htm

Figure 47. Before heavy rain

Source: https://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e07.htm

Figure 48. After heavy rain

V. Irrigation Drainage
 Drainage in irrigation is the process of removing excess water from land that has been
irrigated. Excess water can be caused by rainfall, over-irrigation, canal seepage, or floods.
Drainage is employed in the reclamation of wetlands, in the prevention of erosion, and as a
concomitant of irrigation in the agriculture of arid regions.

Source: https://icid-ciid.org/Knowledge/basic_term/16/Irrigation
Figure 49. Irrigation Drainage

Two Types of Drainage:

 Natural Drainage- It is a drainage consisting of native soils such as a natural swale

which gathers or conveys run-off to a permanent or intermittent watercourse or
waterbody.
 Artificial Drainage- It employs the help of pipes, wells, and other constructed materials
to achieve a successful drainage solution. Many areas have some natural 241 drainage;
this means that excess water flows from the farmers' fields to swamps or to lakes and
rivers. Natural drainage, however, is often inadequate and artificial or man-made
drainage is required.

A. Surface Drainage
 Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/surface-drainage

Figure 50: Surface Drainage

Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land. This is
normally accomplished by shallow ditches, also called open drains.

B. Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the root zone. It is accomplished by deep
open drains or buried pipe drains.

Source: https://www.egr.msu.edu/bae/water/drainage/subsurface-drainage

Figure 51: Subsurface Drainage

a. Relief Drainage
Relief drainage is a term used to describe the method that tile drains lower the water table
in a perched fashion with the water table lowest below the tile line and highest directly
inbetween tile lines. Conventional pattern tile systems were first developed in order to provide
relief drainage for fields with little to no slope. These types of drainage systems are well known
for improving the root zone of crops and increasing yields.
 Source: http://www.agrem.com/design/reliefintercept.html

Figure 52: Relief Drainage

b. Interceptor Drainage

Interceptor drainage is a term used to describe how tile captures water as it moves down
slopes in the subsurface. For a drainage tile to be an interceptor drain, it must be placed
perpendicular to the flow of water, or more generally perpendicular to the rising slope of a field.
Interceptor drains increase the efficiency of subsurface drainage systems on fields with low to
high slopes and fields with undulating topography.

Source: http://www.agrem.com/design/reliefintercept.html

Figure 53: Interceptor Drainage

 VI. REFERENCES

Department of Agriculture & National Irrigation system. (2016, January 26). NIA CLARIFIES
FEE COLLECTION & CONSTRUCTION OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS. Retrieved on
December 20, 2023 from https://www.nia.gov.ph/content/nia-clarifies-fee-collection.

Department of Agriculture & National Irrigation system. (2016, January 26). SMALL
RESERVOIR IRRIGATION PROJECT IMPACTS ON FARMERS' LIVES. Retrieved
on December 20, 2023 from https://www.nia.gov.ph/content/small-reservoir-irrigation-
project impacts-farmers-lives

Keanhart. (2019, June 23). Adventure Squad. Retrieved from advensquad.wordpress.com:

https://advensquad.wordpress.com/2019/06/23/dauin-nia-dam/

PhilAtlas. (2020). Retrieved from www.philatlas.com:

KJGIKhttps://www.philatlas.com/visayas/r07/negros-oriental/zamboanguita/nasig-id.html

Department of Agriculture & National Irrigation system. (2016, January 26). CONSTRUCTION
OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS. Retrieved on December 20, 2023 from
https://www.nia.gov.ph/content/construction-irrigation-systems

National Irrigation System. (2022, May 26). Integrated Management System Manual. Retrieved
on December 20, 2023 from https://www.nia.gov.ph/content/nia-integrated-management
system-manual-iso-90012015-iso-450012018-0.

Department of Agriculture & National Irrigation system. (n.d). POWERS AND FUNCTIONS.
Retrieved on December 20, 2023 from https://www.nia.gov.ph/content/powers-and
functions#:~:text=To%20investigate%2C%20study%2C%20and%20develop,national
%20irrigation%20systems%20(NIS)%3B