Fundamental of CAD

 Introduction
CAD/CAM is abbreviated as Computer – Aided Design and Computer – Aided Manufacturing.
It is the technology concerned with the use of digital computers to perform certain
functions in design and production. This technology is moving in the direction of greater
integration of design and manufacturing which have been traditionally been treated as
distinct and separate function in a production firm. Ultimately this technology will be
directed towards one goal, i.e. fully automated factory in the future. In engineering practice,
CAD/CAM has been utilized in different ways by different people as shown in fig.

Fig. Utilization of CAD/CAM process by different people.

 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

CAD is defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification,
analysis or optimization of design.

The computer system consists of the hardware and software to perform the specialized
design functions required by the particular user firm. The computer system configuration of
CAD is as shown in fig.

Fig. Computer system configuration of CAD

 Computer-Aided manufacturing (CAM)

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer systems to plan, manage, and
control the operations of a manufacturing plant through direct or indirect computer

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interface with plant’s resources. The applications of CAM falls under two categories, they
are:
1. Computer monitoring and control
2. Manufacturing support applications
The applications of CAM are as shown in fig.

Fig. Applications of CAM.

1. Computer monitoring and control

These are direct applications in which the computer is connected directly to the
manufacturing process for the purpose of monitoring or controlling the process. Computer
monitoring and control can be separated into monitoring applications and control
applications.

a) Computer process monitoring:

It involves a direct computer interface with the manufacturing process to observe
the process and associated equipment and collects data from the process.

Fig. Computer process monitoring

b) Computer process control:

It goes one step further than monitoring by not only observing the process but also
controlling it based on the observations.

Fig. 3: Computer process and control

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2. Manufacturing support applications
These are indirect applications in which the computer is used in support of the production
operations in the plant, but there is no direct interface between the computer and the
manufacturing process. Here computer serves a support role in the manufacturing
operations and is used “off-line” to provide plans, schedules, forecasts, instructions and
information by which the firm’s production resources can be managed more effectively.

Fig. Manufacturing support applications

 Fundamentals of CAD
 Modern CAD systems are based on Interactive Computer Graphics (ICG).
 ICG is a system in which computer is used to create, transform, and display data in the
form of pictures or symbols.
 The ICG system and the human designer are the major components of a CAD system.
Interactive computer graphics is a tool used by the designer to solve a design problem.
In effect, the ICG system magnifies the powers of the designer. This has been referred
to as the synergistic effect.
 The designer performs the portion of the design process that is most suitable to human
intellectual skills (conceptualization, independent thinking) whereas the computer
performs the task best suited to its capabilities (speed of calculations, visual display,
storage of data), and the resulting system exceeds the sum of its components.

Fundamental reasons for implementing a CAD system

1. To increase the productivity of the designer.

The CAD improves the productivity of the designer to visualize the product and its
components, parts and reduces time required in synthesizing, analyzing and
documenting the design.

2. To improve the quality of the design.

CAD system permits a more detailed engineering analysis and a large no. of design
alternatives can be investigated. The design errors are also reduced because of the
greater accuracy provided by system.
3. To improve communication in design.
The use of a CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more standardization
in drawing, better documentation of design, few drawing errors.

4. To create a database for manufacturing.

In the process of creating the documentation for the product design, much of the
required data base to manufacture the product can be created.

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5. Improve the efficiency of design.
It improves the efficiency of design process and the wastages at the design stage can
be reduced.

 The General Design Process

It is an iterative procedure, given by Shigley, for designing something. It consists of six
identifiable phases. They are:
1) Recognition of need.
2) Definition of problem.
3) Synthesis.
4) Analysis and Optimization.
5) Evaluation.
6) Presentation.

The general design process flow chart is shown in fig.

Fig. The general design process.

1) Recognition of need:
It involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for which some corrective
action should be taken. This might be the identification of some defect in a current
machine design or the perception of a new product.
2) Definition of problem:
It involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. This specification
includes physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality, and operating
performance.

3) Synthesis: It involves the study of all the parameters individually for designing the
product of its best. All the parameters examined individually, are combined together so
as to form a whole.

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4) Analysis and optimization:
Analysis is closely related to synthesis. Here the product is divided into its subsystems
by the designer for their analysis. These subsystems gets improved through the analysis
procedure and redesigned. The process is repeated until the design has been optimized
within the constraints imposed on the designer.

5) Evaluation:
It involves the measurement of design against the specifications established in the
problem definition phase. This evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of a
prototype model to evaluate operating performance, quality, reliability, and other
criteria.

6) Presentation:
It is the final phase in the design process. It includes documentation of the design by
means of drawings, material specifications, assembly lists, and so on.

 Application of Computers for Design

Engineering design has traditionally accomplished on drawing boards with the design being
documented in the form of a detailed engineering drawing. The process is iterative in nature
and is time consuming. The computer can beneficially be used in the design process in CAD.
The design task is performed by a CAD system rather than a designer working over drawing.
The various design related tasks, which are performed by the CAD system, can be grouped
in to four functional areas. They are
1) Geometric modeling
2) Engineering analysis
3) Design review and evaluation
4) Automated drafting

The CAD modified design or the computer applications in the design process is as shown in
the fig.

Fig. Computer application to the design process (or) CAD modified design process.
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Geometric Modelling
 It corresponds to the synthesis phase in which the physical design project takes form on
the ICG system.
 In CAD, geometric modelling is concerned with the computer-compatible mathematical
description of the geometry of an object.
 The mathematical description allows the image of the object to be displayed and
manipulated on a graphics terminal through signals from the CPU of the CAD system.
 To use geometric modelling, the designer constructs the graphical image of the object
on the CRT screen of the ICG system by inputting three types of commands to the
computer.
a) The first type of command generates basic geometric elements such as points,
lines, and circles.
b) The second command type is used to do scaling, rotation, or other transformations
of these elements.
c) The third type of command is used to join the various elements into the desired
shape of the object being created on the ICG system.
 During the geometric modelling process, the computer converts the commands into a
mathematical model, stores it in the computer data files, and displays it as an image on
the CRT screen.
 There are various methods of representing the object in geometric modelling. Few of
them are as follows:
a) Wireframe Modelling:
It this form the object is shown by interconnecting lines. It can be of three types:
2D : Two dimensional representations for a flat object.
2 and 1/2D : Somewhat beyond the 2D capability by allowing it nearer to 3D
3D : Full three dimensional modelling of a complex geometry.
b) Surface Modelling:
Beside interconnecting lines, the surface of the object will be introduced for the
better understanding of the design of the object.
c) Solid Modelling:
Most advanced method of geometric modelling; Uses solid geometry shapes called
primitives to construct the object.

Engineering Analysis
It corresponds to the analysis and optimization phase of the general design process. In the
formulation of nearly any engineering design project, some type of analysis is required. The
analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat-transfer computations, etc. The
computer can be used to aid in this analysis work. There are generally two methods which
are adopted for analysis purpose:

1. Analysis of Mass properties:

It is the analysis feature of a CAD system that has probably the widest application.
This feature is used to analyze the properties of a solid object such as the surface
area, weight, volume, centre of gravity, and moment of inertia. It is also used for a
plane surface to analyze the perimeter, area, and inertia properties.

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2. Finite element analysis:
It is most powerful analysis technique of a CAD system. In this technique, the object
is divided into a large number of finite elements, usually in rectangular or triangular
shapes, which form an interconnecting network of concentrated nodes. Then the
entire object is analyzed for stress-strain, heat transfer, and other characteristics at
each node by using a computer. At last, By determining the behaviors of all the
nodes, the behavior of the entire object can be assessed.

Design Review and Evaluation

It corresponds to the evaluation phase of the general design process. Checking the accuracy
of the design can be done easily on the graphics terminal. Semiautomatic dimensioning and
tolerancing routines help the user to reduce the possibility of dimensioning errors. The
designer can zoom in on part design details and magnify the image on the graphics screen
for close scrutiny. There are few techniques which are used for design review:

1. Layering:
This procedure is often helpful in design review. It involves overlaying the geometric
image of the final shape over the image of the rough casting. This is done to know
about the availability of sufficient material to accomplish the final machined
dimensions. This procedure can be performed in stages to check each successive
step in the processing of the part.

2. Interference checking:
This involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which there is a risk that the
components of the assembly may occupy the same space. This risk occurs in the
design of large chemical plants, air-separation cold boxes, and other complicated
piping structures.

3. Kinematics: One of the most interesting evaluation features available; It provides the
capability to animate the motion of simple designed mechanisms such as hinged
components and linkages. Commercial software package for kinematics: ADAMS
(Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems).

Automated Drafting
 It involves a procedure for converting the design image data residing in computer
memory into a hardcopy document.
 Automation of drafting process can increase the productivity by five times over
manual drafting.
 Some of the graphics features of computer-aided design systems lend themselves
especially well to the drafting process. These features include automatic
dimensioning, generation of crosshatched areas, scaling of the drawing, and the
capability to develop sectional views and enlarged views of particular path details.

 Benefits of CAD
 Improved engineering productivity
 Shorter lead times
 Reduced engineering personnel requirements
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 Customer modifications are easier to make
 Faster response to requests for quotations
 Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
 Minimized transcription errors
 Improved accuracy of design
 Assistance in preparation of documentation
 Designs have more standardization
 Better designs provided
 Improved productivity in tool design
 Better knowledge of costs provided
 Fewer errors in NC part programming
 Assistance in inspection of complicated parts
 Better communication interfaces and greater understanding among engineers,
designers, drafters, management, and different project groups

 Limitations of CAD
 The system requires large memory and speed.
 The size of the software package is large.
 It requires highly skilled personal to perform the work.
 It has huge investment.

 Computer Configuration for CAD application

Computers have significant impact on design and manufacturing information functions. The
digital computer is an electronic computing machine that can perform mathematical and
logical computations and data processing functions according to a predetermined series of
instructions known as program. The essential components making up a computer system
are referred to as hardware, whereas the various programs are commonly known as
software.

 CAD Hardware Components

The hardware of a CAD system utilizes interactive computer graphics. The typical
configuration of hardware components in a CAD system is as shown in fig.

Fig. Basic hardware structure.

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Typically, a CAD system would include the following hardware components:
1) Design workstations
a. Graphics terminal
b. Operator input devices
2) Central processing unit (CPU)
3) Output devices like plotters, printers etc.
4) Secondary storage

1) The Design Workstation

The design workstation is the system interface with the outside world. It must accomplish
five functions:
 It must interface with the CPU.
 It must generate a steady graphic image for the user.
 It must provide digital descriptions of the graphic image.
 It must translate computer commands into operating functions.
 It must facilitate communication between the user and the system.

A typical CAD workstation would consists of the following hardware components:

a) A graphics terminal.
b) Operator input devices.

a) Graphics Terminal.
The prime function of a graphics terminal is to display the data fed by the user in computer’s
memory. Nearly all computer graphics terminals available today use the cathode ray tube
(CRT) as the display device. A heated cathode emits a high-speed electron beam onto a
phosphor-coated glass screen. The electrons energize the phosphor coating, causing it to
glow at the points where the beam makes contact. By focusing the electron beam, changing
its intensity, and controlling its point of contact against the phosphor coating through the
use of a deflector system, the beam can be made to generate a picture on the CRT screen.
The cathode ray tube diagram is as shown in fig.

Fig. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

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 Fundamental of CAD
There are two basic writing techniques/image generation techniques in computer graphics.
They are:
i. Stroke writing
ii. Raster scan

i. Stroke Writing
The stroke-writing technique uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a
line image on the CRT screen. The image is constructed out of a sequence of straight-line
segments. Each line segment is drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from
one point on the screen to the next, where each point is defined by its x and y coordinates.

Stroke-writing technique is also known as line drawing, random position, vector writing,
stroke writing, and directed beam. The process of stroke writing is as shown in fig.

Fig. Stroke writing.

ii. Raster Scan

In this technique, the screen is divided into a large number of discrete phosphor picture
elements, called pixels. The matrix of pixels constitutes the raster. The number of pixels
range from 256 × 256 (a total of over 65000) to 1024 × 1024 (a total of over 1000000
points). Each pixel on the screen can be made to glow with a different brightness. Color
screens provide for the pixels to have different colors as well as brightness. During
operation, an electron beam creates the image by sweeping along a horizontal line on the
screen from left to right and energizing the pixels in that line during the sweep. When the
sweep of one line gets completed, the electron beam moves to the next line below and
proceeds in a final pattern as shown in Fig.

Fig. Rastar scan.

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After sweeping the entire screen, the process is repeated at a rate of 30 to 60 entire scans
of the screen per second. Other names for the raster scan technique include digital TV and
scan graphics.

b) Input devices
These are the devices through which the user / operator communicates with the computer
for feeding it with the necessary information. They are:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Light pen
 Joystick
 Digitizer
 Scanner

2) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of the entire system.

Functions of CPU
 To receive information from the work station and display the output on the CRT screen.
 To read the data stored in the secondary memory storage unit.

Fig. Components of CPU.

3) Output devices like plotters, printers etc.

 Once the output is finalized on the display device, it can be transformed into hard
copy using the following.
 Graphical printers
 Plotters
 Photographic devices

4) Secondary Storage
 To store files related to engineering drawing.
 To store programs required to give instruction to output devices like plotters.
 To store CAD software.
 The secondary storage unit consists of magnetic tapes and discs.
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 Graphic Terminals for CAD
The two approaches descried earlier are used in the majority of current day CAD graphic
terminals. There are also a variety of other technical factors which result in different types
of graphic terminals. The three types of graphic terminals are:
1) Directed beam refresh tube (DBRT)
2) Direct view storage tube (DVST)
3) Raster Scan (Digital TV)

Among these three types, first two types use stroke writing technique for image generation
and the third type uses raster scan technique for the same.

1. Directed Beam Refresh Tube (DBRT)

The directed beam refresh tube is the oldest of the modern graphics display technologies. It
uses the stroke writing technique to generate the image on the CRT screen. In it, the image
must be regenerated many times per second in order to avoid noticeable flicker of the
image. The phosphor elements on the screen surface are capable of maintaining their
brightness for only a short span of time. In order to get a continuous image, these picture
tubes must be refreshed by causing the directed beam to retrace the image repeatedly. This
system is also known as vector refresh or stroke writing refresh.

Advantages
 Selective eraser and alteration of the image is possible as the image is being
continuously refreshed.
 Animation of the image is also possible with this system.

Disadvantages
 On densely filled screens, it is impossible to avoid flickering of the image.

2. Direct View Storage Tube (DVST)

These are the low-cost terminals and are capable of displaying large amounts of data, either
graphical or textual. These terminals also use the stroke-writing approach to generate the
image on the CRT screen. The term 'storage tube' refers to the ability of the screen to retain
the image which has been projected against it, thus avoiding the need of rewrite the image
constantly. It uses an electron flood gun directed at the phosphor coated screen which
keeps the phosphor elements illuminated once they have been energized by the stroke-
writing technique.

Advantages
 It gives a flicker free image on the CRT.
 Lines can be added to the image without worrying about their effect on the image
density or refresh rate.

Disadvantages
 Selective eraser and alteration is not possible.
 Lack of color and animation capabilities.
 Inability to use the light pen as a data entry device.

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3. Raster Scan (Digital TV)
Raster scan terminals use the raster scan writing technique in which the screen is divided
into the pixels. The operation of a raster scan terminal is similar to that of a commercial
television set. The difference is that a TV set uses analog signals, while the raster scan ICG
terminal uses digital signals generated by a computer. For this reason, the raster scan
terminals used in computer graphics are sometimes called digital TVs. The simplest and
lowest-cost terminal in this category uses only two beam intensity levels, on or off. This
means that each pixel in the viewing screen is either illuminated or dark. A picture of 256 ×
256 requires over a 65,000 bits of storage. Each bit of memory contains the ON/OFF status
of the corresponding pixel on the CRT screen. This memory is called the Frame Buffer or
Refresh Buffer. The picture quality can be improved in two ways:
a. By increasing the pixel density.
b. By adding a gray scale (or color).

 Increasing pixel density for the same size screen means adding more lines of resolution
and more addressable points per line. For this, a 1024 × 1024 raster screen would
require more than 1 million bits of storage in the frame buffer.
 A gray scale is accomplished by expanding the number of intensity levels which can be
displayed on each pixel. This requires additional bits for each pixel to store the intensity
level. Two bits are required for four levels, three bits for eight levels, and so on. This
system is also known as vector refresh or stroke writing refresh.
 A raster scan terminal with high resolution and gray scale can require a very large
capacity refresh buffer.

Advantages
 More clarity in image.
 Feasibility to use low cost terminals.
 Color capabilities.
 Animation is also possible.

Disadvantages
 High maintenance and operating cost.

 Comparison of Graphics Terminal Features

Most of the important characteristics of the three types of graphical terminals are shown in
the table below.

Table. Comparison of graphic terminal features.

Feature Directed beam refresh DVST Raster Scan
Image generation Stroke writing Stroke writing Raster scan
Picture quality Excellent Excellent Moderate to good
Data content Limited High High
Selective erase Yes No Yes
Gray scale Yes No Yes
Color capability Moderate No Yes
Animation capability Yes No Moderate

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 Computer Graphics Software and Database
The graphics software is the collection of programs written to make it convenient for a user
to operate the computer graphics system. It includes programmes to generate images on
the CRT screen, to manipulate the images, and to accomplish various types of interaction
between the user and the system. A raster scan terminal with high resolution and gray scale
can require a very large capacity refresh buffer.

The graphics software for a particular computer graphics system depends upon the type of
hardware in the system. The software written for a stroke-writing CRT would be different
than for a raster scan CRT.

Newman and Spoull list six “ground rules” that should be considered in designing graphics
software:
1. Simplicity
The graphics software should be easy to use.
2. Consistency
The package should operate in a consistent and predictable way to the user.
3. Completeness
There should be no inconvenient omissions in the set of graphics functions.
4. Robustness
The graphics system should be tolerant of minor instances of misuse by the
operator.
5. Performance
The performance should be exploited as much as possible by software. Graphics
program should be efficient and speed of response should be fast and consistent.
6. Economy
Graphics program should not be so expensive as to make their use prohibitive.

 CAD System Software

The graphics system, also known as graphics package, can have the following software
configurations/modules:
1. The graphics package (Also known as graphics system)
2. The application program
3. The application database

This software configuration is illustrated in the fig.

Fig. model of software configuration.

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The central module is the application program. It controls the storage of data into and
retrieves data out of the application database. The application program is driven by the
user through the graphics package which is also known as the graphics system.

1. Graphics Package
 It is the software support between the user and the graphics terminal.
 It manages the graphical interaction between the user and the system.
 It also serves as the interface between the user and the application
software/program.
 It consists of input subroutines and output subroutines.
 The input subroutines accept input commands and data from the user and forward
them to the application program.
 The output subroutine controls the display terminal (or other output device) and
converts the application model into 2D or 3D graphical pictures.

2. Application Program/Software
 It is implemented by the user to construct the model of a physical entity whose
image is to be viewed on the graphics screen.
 The application programs are written for particular problem areas. Problem areas in
engineering design would include architecture, construction, mechanical
components, electronics, chemical engineering, and aerospace engineering.
 Problem areas other than design would include flight simulators, graphical display of
data, mathematical analysis, and even artwork.
 Actually, it is the central module of the software configuration. It controls the
storage of data into and retrieves data out of the application data base. It is driven
by the user through the graphics package.

3. Application Database
 It is the third module in the ICG software.
 The data base contains mathematical, numerical, and logical definitions of the
application models, such as electronic circuits, mechanical components, automobile
bodies, and so forth.
 It also includes alphanumeric information associated with the models, such as bills of
materials, mass properties, and other data.
 The contents of the data base can be readily displayed on the CRT or plotted out in
hard-copy form.

 CAD Database
It is defined as an organized collection of graphics and non-graphics data stored on
secondary storage in computer. The objective of a database is to collect and maintain data
in a central storage so that it will be available for alterations and decision-making.

Advantages
1. Eliminate redundancy

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2. Enforce standards
3. Apply security reasons
4. Maintain integrity
5. Balance conflicting requirements

 CAD Data Structure

Generally, a data structure is defined as a set of data items or elements that are related to
each other by a set of relation. Applying these relations to the elements of the set results in
a meaningful object. From the CAD/CAM point of view, the data structure is a scheme, logic
or a sequence of steps developed to achieve a certain graphics, non-graphics and/or a
programming goal. Consider an object as shown in Fig.

Fig. Model Figure.

There are three types of database structures than can be identified to construct the object
shown above based on edges, vertices and surfaces.

1) Based on edges
Table. Set of Edges.
A B C D E F G

Table. Relations for corners with edges

Corner 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
End of End of
Edges A&B B&C C&D D&A E&F F&G
edge E edge G
Here the vertex 1 is sharing by the edges A & B and so on.

2) Based on corners
Table. Set of Vertices.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Table. Relations for edges with corners

Edges A B C D E F G
Corner 1&4 1&2 2&3 3&4 5&6 6&7 7&8
Here the Edge A is sharing by the vertices 1 & 4.

3) Based on blocks
Table. Set of blocks
S1 S2 UNION

As per the definition of the data structure, the set of edges, vertices or blocks is the set of
data items for each type and edges, vertices or blocks are the data items themselves.
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