chapter EIGHT

Doing Case Studies and

Writing Reports

In this chapter we examine two other forms of assessment you are very likely to
use at university: case studies and reports. Case studies are used as a means of
teaching the link between what you learn and what happens in the ‘real’ world.
They are invaluable in courses with a large practical element. Reports are not
strictly speaking a form of assessment, but a way of presenting information.
They use formatting and other graphical devices to present information in a very
clear, easy-to-read manner.
In this chapter you will learn how to:

do case studies:
understand the case
link the case to course concepts and theories
create a range of solutions and recommendations
write up the case study
write reports:
structure a report
write each section in a report.

Case studies
The knowledge in your courses at university is well organised, often abstract
and offers ideal solutions to problems. The ‘real’ world of actual events and
behaviours and situations, on the other hand, has very specific problems with
messy and chaotic features. As a result, many students often wonder what the
relation of university knowledge is to their lives.
A case study is a story of some actual situation designed to allow students
to learn skills in applying their course knowledge to the ‘real world’. It is either
based on research, or is a fictional account, of particular events or behaviours
or institutions.

169
 170 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

The simplest case studies are ‘real life’ accounts with specific questions
aimed at assessing your ability to:

recognise course concepts and ideas in a ‘real life’ situation (for example,
a case may contain an account of a particular manager and her way of
working with staff; you may be asked to name her management style
using a course concept)
perform some calculation using ‘real life’ data (for example, you may
be given a story of some real company’s transactions, with questions
that require you to use the data in the case to perform some accounting
calculations)
show your course knowledge in a case study context (for example, you
may be asked to examine two different computers and recommend which
one would be suitable for a company described in a case study). See
Case study report (n.d.) <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/
report/1.xml> for an example of such a case study).

Case studies help These types of case studies are relatively simple. The key skill is to link what
students learn how to
you know in the course with what is presented in the case.
link their knowledge to
a particular ‘real life’ A more demanding case study requires problem-recognition and problem-
situation. solving skills as well. This gives students the chance to learn how to use the
knowledge in their course in order to:

make sense of the complexities in any particular situation

find the problems that need addressing
present viable solutions.

The four steps in doing a problem-solving case study are:

1 Get to know the case.

2 Identify the problems.
3 Create recommendations.
4 Write up the case study.

Getting to know the case

Very focused work has to be done to reveal the nature of a long and complex
case. The key tasks in this process are:

reading the case

linking to the course material
reordering the case details into suitable categories.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 171

Reading the case

Start by reading the case a number of times to get to know all the details. Focus When reading the
case, aim to find its
on:
details.
the details in the case by looking for answers to questions such as: What
has happened? When has it happened? Who are the main actors in the
case? Who did what?
the claims made by the actors or by the case. Don’t take any description
as necessarily correct. Always check to see if the claims are backed up by
some evidence from the case details.

Reading a case study Activity

Read the following case study and answer the questions below.

As Bao Mei was a very good student at her high school in northern China, her parents
carefully saved money to send her to Australia to study. They have great expectations
that she will become an accountant and help them run their business. Bao Mei is
halfway through her first semester in Australia.
The money her parents send her is not enough to cover the cost of living, so Bao Mei
has found a job at a Chinese restaurant, where she works for 20 hours each week.
Bao Mei knows it is best to study as much as she can. She usually gets up at 4 a.m.
and studies for three hours before going to university. When she doesn’t have lectures,
she keeps studying, only stopping to eat noodles at lunchtime, and to go to work in the
evening.
Her greatest difficulty, at the moment, is writing an essay on the topic: ‘A leader is
important for successful team work. Discuss.’ The essay is worth 30 per cent of the
course marks, and Bao Mei is not sure what she has to do. She tries to ask the librarian,
but the librarian is not at her desk, so Bao Mei decides it is better to start searching,
rather than wait. She carefully copies her essay topic into a database and retrieves so
many articles it is impossible to select what to read. She then types the essay topic into
the library catalogue and finds nothing.
Bao Mei is becoming quite desperate and disheartened. She has passed in the
mid-semester examination, receiving 25/40 marks, but that is not a good mark and
now she doesn’t know what to do for her essay. She thinks of what it would be like to
fail her course and what her parents would think. Bao Mei is beginning to panic
because she also has to study for tests in other courses. She feels stupid not knowing
what to do.
Finally, Bao Mei asks a friend, Chamika, for advice: ‘How do I find sources for the
essay?’ ‘That’s easy,’ Chamika replies, ‘it says “teamwork”. That’s what you look for.’
 172 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

Bao Mei and Chamika find numerous articles on teamwork. Then it seems easy to
write the essay.
Bao Mei is very careful to write well-developed paragraphs. She checks all her topic
sentences. She writes everything she knows about ‘teamwork’ and cites all her ideas.
She submits her essay, very pleased because she feels she has done well.
When Bao Mei receives her essay back, the tutor has written on it ‘Bao Mei, I can
see you have read a lot of articles and books. You have also written good topic
sentences and paragraphs. However, your essay is not on the topic. Unfortunately, you
must fail. Your mark is 12/30.’
Bao Mei is distraught. Her final exam in this course is an essay worth 30 per cent of
the course marks. She feels sure she will fail.

Questions
1 Who are the main ‘actors’ in the case?
2 What are the main events in the case?
3 The case says: ‘Her (Bao Mei’s) greatest difficulty at the moment is writing an essay.’
Do you think this is a true assessment? Give reasons for your answer.

Linking to the course material

Once you know the case fairly well, you should be in a position to judge the
general course content area the case is addressing. If this is not obvious (perhaps
you have not yet had a lecture on the area and so it is unfamiliar to you), then ask
your tutor. You cannot proceed without this knowledge.
When the general content area is established, leave the case and return to your
course material. Read any relevant lecture notes, chapters in text books, or search
for and read other relevant sources. Deepen your knowledge of the concepts and
theories in your course so that all the relevant ideas will be in the forefront of
your mind as you do further work on the case.
To find the links between Return to reading the case with your course knowledge. A case rarely uses
case details and the
course concepts and terminology; rather, it describes actions and events. Look
course, ask questions of
the case using course at these details to find the relevant concepts, terminology and theories that
concepts and theories. could be used to describe and explain them. In order to do this, ask questions
of the case, for example, ‘Is there any evidence of X concept in this case?’ Write
down all the course concepts that are related. These are extremely important
for your analysis of the case. Expect to reread the case with this viewpoint a
number of times.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 173

Linking the case to the course Activity

1 What content area in this book do you think Bao Mei’s story is linked with (try to be as
specific as possible)?
2 Reread the section in this book that is most relevant to Bao Mei’s case.
3 Find two course concepts that would be helpful in naming and describing parts of
Bao Mei’s case.

Reordering the case details into suitable categories

All your reading is preparation for the next step, which is to reorganise the Reorganise the
information in the case
information in the case for your own purpose. The case will not be neatly
into a useful form.
categorised into information directly related to your course. Nor will it be
organised in a manner that is helpful for immediate analysis. To create a useful
form of the information, the case details need to be reorganised.
Each discipline has its own models or tools that enable a student to reorder
case information (see, for example, Problem-solving techniques, n.d.). We will
examine just two that are able to be used in any context:

a timeline
a SWOT analysis.

A timeline allows us to regroup the case information in an ordered manner A timeline shows what
with a focus on what happened, when, to the company or person (etc.) involved happened, when.

in the case.
A SWOT analysis is a conceptual tool or model that creates a focus on A SWOT analysis
reveals qualities
qualities in the case that are relevant to its problems and solutions. It breaks
related to problems and
up the chaotic information in the case and regroups it into Strengths and solutions.
Weaknesses internal to the organisation or individual, and Opportunities and
Threats that are external.

The Strengths are those features within the organisation or individual

that help (ask: ‘Who/What makes it easy or successful?’)
The Weaknesses are the qualities that hinder (ask: ‘Who/What makes it
more difficult? Who/What creates a problem?’).
The Opportunities are aspects of the external world that could help if
used (ask: ‘Who/What could help?’)
The Threats are possible external problems (ask: ‘Who/What is a possible
problem?’).
 174 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

Reordering the information in a case

Activity
1 Draw a timeline for Bao Mei’s case.
2 Do a SWOT analysis on Bao Mei’s case. Use the question guide below. Provide
specific details from the case to support your answers.
Note: the questions asked about Bao Mei’s case are relevant to this learning situation only. When you are
doing a case study in another discipline, choose questions that reflect the interests in that discipline. For some
useful questions in a business context see SWOT Analysis: Discover new opportunities. Manage and eliminate
threats (n.d.).

Strengths Weaknesses
What helps Bao Mei in her current situation? What hinders Bao Mei in her current situation?
Consider: Consider:
personal characteristics personal characteristics
skills lack of skills
resources (people and things that help her) lack of or inadequate resources (people and
things)

Opportunities Threats
What is available to Bao Mei which she could What is in Bao Mei’s context that could cause a
use to help herself? future problem?
Consider: Consider:
resources (people and things) future lack of resources (people and things)
future events future events

Identifying the problems

Begin your identification of the problems by highlighting all the difficulties in
the case study. The SWOT analysis helps.
Most often the problems will not be described using course concepts.
Rather, you are presented with signs or symptoms of the problem. Your task is
to examine these and recognise the concept within your course that would be
used to name them.
For example, a case may describe an angry manager. Think of this as a
symptom of a course-related problem. Ask: ‘What course concept does this
symptom relate to?’ You may find that the symptom of an angry manager relates
to a failure in interpersonal skills in one course or to the use of a particular
management style in another, and perhaps is entirely irrelevant in other courses.
Look for relationships
between all aspects of A case often presents a complex problem or problems. It is helpful to draw a
the problem(s). concept map to highlight some of the aspects of the problem(s):
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 175

the causes of any problem

the effects and/or symptoms of any problem
the connection of one problem to another
the connections of any problem across the past, present, future.

Making recommendations
The most important task in a case study is the creation of recommendations A recommendation is
to solve the problems identified in the case. Recommendations offer clear and a clear and specific
statement of what needs
specific advice on what needs to be done. They are developed from a good to be done to solve a
knowledge of both the case, and of the relevant literature. problem.

Generating solutions
Your task is to find to what extent the ideal solutions provided in the literature can
be used in the case. First, reread the literature, giving particular emphasis to the
kinds of solutions relevant to the problem(s) identified in the case. Also consider
solutions you have used in your workplace or elsewhere. Think very carefully of
the case details, as the solution has to fit the case.
Next, use techniques to help generate a range of possible solutions for the Create both innovative
and systematic
particular case you are dealing with. Brainstorming can be used as a way of
solutions.
producing innovative ideas. To brainstorm ask yourself what would be useful.
Record all ideas without judging their value. Then assess the ideas. This approach
would be particularly useful in a case study in, for example, marketing, where
creative solutions are required. It also works well in a group discussion of
solutions.
Systematic solutions are also needed. To do this, it is best to use criteria
around which solutions can be built. Select the criteria from the ones relevant
to the particular case, for example:

low cost; medium cost; high cost

short term; long term
high profit/high risk; medium profit/medium risk; low profit/low risk.

Then for each criterion, develop solutions that can fit the details of the case
and the knowledge in the literature.
 176 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

Activity Generating solutions

Brainstorming
1 Do this activity in groups of three or four. Select one member who will record all ideas.
Remind yourself you are not to judge ideas and that any idea is useful at this stage.
Brainstorm solutions to the problem in the Bao Mei case study—what could Bao Mei
do to maximise her opportunities and minimise her threats?

Thinking systematically
2 Systematically generate solutions for Bao Mei using two different criteria:
a receiving a mark above 60 per cent in her course
b receiving a passing mark for her course.

Make sure specific details are provided for each solution and that these are suitable for
the case.

Evaluating solutions
Select the solution(s) Evaluate the range of solutions generated. Ideally, a solution that solves all the
that is most likely to
problems identified in the case is the one that should be used. However, the
be successful given the
nature of the case. whole point of a case study is that the ‘real world’ is not ideal, but rather chaotic
and messy. So a more realistic approach needs to be taken. The solution that is
likely to be most successful, given the nature of the case, is to be preferred. In
selecting be aware of:

any assumptions that need to be made (not all details are supplied in a
case; you may have to assume some)
the changes in the case situation that would be required to create the
solution
the Strengths that could be used to help in the transformation
the way Weaknesses could be minimised
the Opportunities that could be utilised
the Threats that need to be avoided
the costs
the expected outcomes if the solution were adopted
any problems likely to remain.

Once a solution Once a solution(s) has been selected, it becomes a recommendation. Provide
has been selected
the details of:
it becomes a
recommendation.
who is to do what, when, and how
the expected outcome
the limitations—any problems likely to remain or any assumptions used.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 177

There is no one right answer. Your task is to show you know how to apply the
concepts and theory in your course to the case.

Evaluating solutions Activity

In your groups:

1 Examine the solutions you have generated for Bao Mei. Select the one that is the best
fit for the case, or create a new solution that is a combination of aspects of those you
have generated.
2 Decide why you see it as the best option.
3 Give details about how it is to be implemented within the case context.
4 Decide which problems are likely to remain, even if the recommendation is followed.

Writing up the case study

A case study is normally written using the following structure: In writing up a case
study, aim to show your
Introduction thinking on the case and
your knowledge of the
Background
literature.
Method
Analysis and discussion
Recommendations (alternatively, recommendations may be written after
the conclusion)
Conclusion.

An introduction needs to be given in which the following elements are briefly

presented: a statement of the topic area; and summaries of the method employed,
the main problems found in the case, and the major recommendations.
As well, some background should be included. A brief summary of the case
story can be made. Material from the literature (with citations) indicating the
significance of the type of problem in the case, or general information about the
company or situation dealt with in the case, can be presented.
The method section briefly provides a description, with citations, of the
conceptual tools (such as SWOT) used to help explore case details.
The analysis and discussion section is a comprehensive description of,
and comment upon, the problems identified in the case. Each problem is fully
described using case information. A discussion is then included in which
comments are made about the problem. The relevant literature is addressed as
a means of highlighting the significance of the problem or explaining it further.
Citations need to be used when referring to the literature. To create links between
the case and the literature, tentative statements are used to indicate that possible
 178 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

connections are being made. For example, you might write: ‘This situation is
similar to that described by …’, or ‘It appears that the problem has many features
in common with …’.
Recommendations are The final section in the body presents the recommendations with full
fully described and
justification. It includes:
justified.
a brief restatement of the problem
a statement of the recommendation with full justification for it using
both the literature and the case
comprehensive details about how the recommendation should be carried
out within the case context
an assessment of the extent to which the recommendation will solve the
problem in the case
(optional) a numbered summary restatement of the recommendation.

When justifying a recommendation, explain fully why it is the best

recommendation for the particular problem in the case. Give details so that it
is clear exactly what needs to be done in the case situation. Also show that the
recommendation has some support in the literature, by noting, with citations,
why it is valued or when it has been used in a similar situation.
If a recommendation summary is included, title and number it (for example,
Recommendation 1) and provide a clear summary, usually beginning with: ‘It is
recommended that …’ Subpoints are used (if necessary) to indicate steps in the
process needed to achieve the outcome.

Recommendation summary
Example
Recommendation 1.0
It is recommended that Student X learn how to do her case study by:

reading Chapter 8 of the textbook

doing some initial analysis of the case using a SWOT analysis
highlighting where she is experiencing difficulty
asking her tutor for help with the specific difficulties.

A conclusion is essential. It provides a clear summary of all stages. It can be

stronger and fuller than the summary contained in the introduction.
Different disciplines will have their own preferred way of presenting a case
study. The sections outlined above are the most common. However, the order may
vary. Some disciplines, for example, prefer the recommendations to follow rather
than precede the conclusion. Sometimes a case study is presented in an essay
format. If this is the case, it is usual to use headings. More often the case study is
written in a report format. The next section outlines the general features of a report.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 179

Writing up the analysis and discussion section for a case study Activity
1 Use the case study presented in this chapter (see Activity: Reading a case study).
Write one or two paragraphs to present an analysis and discussion of Bao Mei’s
problem of not knowing how to select and use keywords:
a Fully describe Bao Mei’s specific problem as presented in the case study.
b Provide a tentative statement linking the case problem to the literature.
c Outline, with citations, what the literature says about this problem. Use the extract
(in italics) published in 2004 and written by Jenny Ellis and Fiona Salisbury. It is a
web document, and the relevant section is titled ‘Keywords’. It presents results
from a study of first year students at the University of Melbourne.

EX TR AC T
Students were asked to underline the keywords in the following essay topic: Examine
the use of suspense in Alfred Hitchcock's films Psycho and Rear Window.

Of the total group, 32 per cent were able to identify a suitable number of
appropriate keywords that would have given a sensible starting point for constructing
a search strategy. However, 31 per cent underlined too few keywords. For example,
underlining of only the words ‘Examine’ and ‘suspense’ was not considered sufficient
coverage of the topic. Twenty-eight per cent displayed a tendency to underline too
many keywords in the topic, sometimes underlining almost every word in the
sentence. Others underlined instructional words such as ‘examine’ and ‘use of’ as well
as the key concepts required for searching. Eight per cent of students did not attempt
this question.

2 See Appendix D for a further exercise on writing the analysis and discussion of a
case problem.

Reports
A report is a style of presentation of ideas that uses formatting and other
graphic modes of presentation to simplify reading and understanding.
You will almost certainly be asked to present some of your work at university
in a report format. A report is constructed so that reading is simplified. Instead
of using words to carry an argument, as an essay does, a report uses formatting
and other graphic devices.
All reports have three main sections, each with their own formatting features:

preliminary matter
report text
endmatter.
180 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

Order of report content

The order of presentation of each of these sections in a report varies depending
on the nature of the report, the practices within a discipline and even the
preferences of individual lecturers. Always be guided by your lecturer. See
Table 8.1 for some possible structures, but expect to find variations on these.
Also, Chapter 13 provides one possible outline of the structure for a report on
primary research.

Table 8.1 Some different report structures

Basic report of secondary research Basic problem-solving case study report

Title page Title page
Table of contents Table of contents
Executive summary (or Abstract) Executive summary (or Abstract)
1.0 Introduction 1.0 Introduction
2.0 First body section 2.0 Background
2.1 subheading 3.0 Method
2.2 subheading 4.0 Analysis and discussion
3.0 Second body section 4.1 First problem
4.0 etc. 4.2 Second problem
5.0 Conclusion 4.3 etc.
Reference list 5.0 Recommendations (Recommendations
may also be placed after the Conclusion)
6.0 Conclusion
Reference list
Appendices

Basic report for engineering students Full report

Title page Title page
Abstract Letter of transmittal
Disclaimer Table of contents
Acknowledgments List of Illustrations and Tables
Contents Acknowledgments
Figures Executive summary
Tables 1.0 Introduction
Symbols 2.0 First body section with recommendations if
1.0 Introduction appropriate
2.0 First body section 3.0 Second body section with
2.1 subheading recommendations if appropriate
2.2 subheading etc. 4.0 etc.
3.0 Second body section with subheadings 5.0 Conclusion
4.0 etc. List of recommendations (if appropriate)
5.0 Conclusion Appendices
6.0 Recommendations Abbreviations
References Glossary
Appendices Reference list
Note: From Report Writing. Style Guide for Note: From Style Manual. For authors, editors and
Engineering Students by A. Winckel, & B. Hart, 2002. printers (pp. 236–237), 2002, Milton, Queensland:
University of South Australia Learning and Teaching John Wiley & Sons.
Unit webpage.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 181

The order of working on a report is different from the order of the final
presentation. A report is presented with the preliminary matter first, but, in
fact, that has to be written after the text section is completed. Thus we will
begin an examination of the features of a report with those to be found in the
text section.

The report text

Overall structure
The report text carries the content. It contains: The report text has
the same basic overall
an introduction (including background), structure as an essay.
body
conclusion.

The introduction begins the report. It usually contains:

the name and position of the person who commissioned the report (if
appropriate)
a statement of the general topic of the report
a statement of the main purpose of the report (for example, to give
recommendations)
a description of the scope of the report (for example, what exactly the
report investigated)
background to establish a context for, and the significance of, the
information in the report
an indication of which sections are included in the report or a summary
of report content.

An introduction to a report is likely to be written over a number of paragraphs.

It is even possible for each part of the introduction to be given a subheading. For
example, it may be written as:

1.0 Introduction (with a short paragraph saying who commissioned the

report, if appropriate and indicating the general topic area)
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope
1.3 Background
1.4 Report outline (or Report summary).

An introduction to a report of primary research may be significantly different.

See Chapter 13.
The body of the report is the largest part of the report text. It is logically The body of the report
organised as a number of linked sections, each of which may have subsections. consists of linked sections.
 182 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

Each section and subsection is placed in a carefully selected and meaningful

order. Its style of presentation is distinctive, and will be discussed more fully
below.
The conclusion summarises the report. It can also remind the reader of
the importance of the report by linking to the background. The conclusion is
normally presented as one or more paragraphs, and does not have subheadings.
The presentation of Recommendations, if used, can immediately precede the conclusion
recommendations is
section, or occur throughout the text, or follow the conclusion. The placement
different in different
reports. is determined mostly by how comprehensive the justification for the
recommendations is.
If the report is lengthy (such as over 5000 words) and includes recommen-
dations that require a full justification and explanation, this section can be placed
before the conclusion and only the summary of each recommendation be placed
after the conclusion. If the report is very comprehensive, recommendations are
included within each relevant body section, so are not given a separate section
in the report. In this case, a list of recommendations must be included after the
conclusion.
On the other hand, if the report is short and the recommendations require
little justification as they follow obviously from the conclusions of the report,
then they may be placed after that section. Even in this situation, however, one
or more paragraphs should be written to persuade the reader of the suitability
of any recommendation before it is presented.

Formatting and graphic presentation of ideas and information

in the report text
The report text consists of many paragraphs, all of which require the same
abilities as needed in essay writing: coherence within each paragraph, a logical
order indicating an argument between paragraphs, use of topic sentences and
use of citations (where appropriate).
The report text uses The report text also includes very distinctive features. In order to create
headings, bullet
a document that is easy to read, it uses devices that make the content highly
points and graphic
representation of visible, such as:
information to make
reading easier. headings and numbering
bullet points
graphic representation of information.

Headings are short titles Headings and numbering

for sections indicating
Each section of the report text is given a heading to indicate its content. To
content and order.
create a heading:
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 183

name the content of the section

use only a few words
do not use verbs.

Headings are numbered in the report text so that the order of sections is
obvious. The first level indicates the major sections within the report (such as
1.0; 2.0; 3.0). Separate subsections within these larger units are also numbered
(such as 3.1; 3.2). It is possible to also break the text into smaller sections with
a third (and even a fourth) level of heading, but this should not be attempted
unless the report is quite long and complex.
Headings are formatted to produce maximum visibility. Usually a heading is
on a line by itself, often in a larger font from the text and in bold. Typically the
heading is aligned to the left page margin. The following should be used:

different sized fonts for different levels of heading

numbering to indicate the relationship between headings
(sometimes) indentation of the text under the lowest level headings.

Creating headings Activity

Turn each of the following sentences into a major heading or a subheading and number it,
starting at 3.0.

a This report examines internet marketing.

b Email is sometimes used as a tool for marketing.
c Advertisements on popular webpages are a good way to market products.

Bullet points
Bullet points allow information to be presented in a very visible manner. They Bullet points are used
when a number of items
use an abbreviated form of a list with each item clearly displayed. They appear
of information can be
simple but, in fact, require considerable skill. A bullet point list needs to be: briefly presented in a
list form.
well categorised and ordered (see Chapter 5)
linked into the argument, so there is a continuity of ideas
introduced, using part of a sentence with a colon
written so that each point fits in grammatically with the introductory
sentence (each point has a parallel structure)
fully described in the text following the listing of points.

Typically, bullet points are linked into the argument by an introductory

sentence that summarises why the list of points is being presented. As
well, a partial sentence always precedes the bullet points, and provides the
grammatical structure for the list. Once the bullet points have been presented,
 184 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

each point needs to be fully explained in the text with appropriate explanations,
descriptions and examples. Good bullet points show that you are a skilful writer;
however, they should be sparingly employed, for maximum impact, and not used
if the content is complex.

Activity Creating bullet points

Write bullet points with an introductory sentence for each of the following. Make sure the
points are well ordered and that they grammatically fit with the introductory sentence
(have a parallel structure).

1 List three ways of organising ideas.

2 List two entry paths into university.
3 List three good reasons for using bullet points.

Graphic representation of information

Graphic information Reports can and should use a range of graphic presentation of information. In
presents data or ideas
reports dealing with statistical information, tables and figures are used. Tables
in a highly visible form.
present the information in columns and rows. Figures give a visual depiction
of the information (figures include: bar charts; pie charts; graphs). Diagrams can
also be included to give a simple graphical view of a set of relationships being
discussed. All of these are normally included within the report text, though
some disciplines expect them to be placed in appendices.
All forms of graphic presentation of information need to be presented
professionally. Each requires:

an identifier (such as Figure 1 or Table 1)

a title.

Usually tables, figures and diagrams have a separate numbering system.

Hence, there may be Table 1; Table 2; Figure 1; and Diagram 1. The identifier and
title can be written in bold above the graphic.
Graphic information needs to be discussed within the text. Before or after
presenting any illustration, explain fully what it means. Repeat, in words, the
information contained in a table or figure. Refer to the graphic being discussed
(for example, write: ‘See Figure 2’).
If you have used a graphic from a source (rather than generated it yourself),
acknowledge the source below the graphic (use smaller font):

for a journal article write: Note. From ‘Title of article’, by A. A. Author, date,
Journal Title, volume number, p. X
for a book write: Note. From Title of book (p. X), by A. Author, date, Place of
Publication: Publisher.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 185

Page numbering
The report text is often presented as one continuous item. Although it is divided
into a number of different sections and subsections, these may not be divided
by page breaks. However, some disciplines prefer that each major section begins
on a new page. Be guided by your lecturer.
The report text is numbered using arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 etc.), starting with
the introduction on page 1.

Preliminary matter

Overall structure
All reports contain some preliminary matter. It is material that is not part of the Preliminary matter
is included before the
content and is included before the report proper (the text). Possible preliminary
report text.
matter includes (the order can vary):

title page
disclaimer
letter of transmittal
terms of reference
table of contents
list of illustrations
acknowledgments
abbreviations
symbols
executive summary (or abstract).

Content of preliminary pages

The title page of a report is like a title page of a book. Give your report a title,
rather than just copying the question asked; provide your name(s) and student
ID(s); indicate who the report is for by naming your lecturer and providing the
course title, or naming the authorising person and company; and insert the date
of submission of the report, which is technically called: ‘date of release’. Use
formatting to make the page attractive.
A disclaimer is occasionally added to large reports. It is a short sentence
stating that the report is the work of the author(s) and is hand signed by the
author(s). Typically, if a student is required to present such a disclaimer, the
wording will be provided.
The letter of transmittal is a short business letter attached to some reports
as an accompaniment. The letter is formatted using the usual layout for a
business letter. As it is personal, use first and second person as appropriate. See
the example below.
 186 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

Letter of transmittal
Example
35 Whitlam Avenue Your address and contact details
Canberra
ACT 2610
Telephone 6225 5907
E-mail wendysmith@anu.edu.au

24 October 2024 Date

Professor Iain M Banks Name and address of person to

Department of Science Fiction whom the report is addressed
Australian National University
Canberra

Dear Professor

I am pleased to present you (provide the title of the report).

This report (provide a brief summary of the report's content).

I look forward to (indicate willingness to discuss the report or gratitude for being asked
to do the report).

Yours sincerely

Signature

Wendy Smith Your signature, name and position

Consultant

Some reports require you to address terms of reference. These are the areas
a company or agency wishes to be covered in a report. If you are given these,
copy and paste them onto a page and use a heading: Terms of reference.

Terms of reference
Example To make recommendations on how the purposes, shape, structure, size and funding of
higher education, including support for students, should develop to meet the needs of the
United Kingdom over the next 20 years, recognising that higher education embraces
teaching, learning, scholarship and research.

Note: Section of Terms of Reference. From Report of the National Committee, by The National
Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education, 1997, retrieved from <www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe>.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 187

All reports include a table of contents. Use a heading: either Contents or

Table of contents. List the main divisions within the report, and provide their
initial page numbers. The following are listed:

all items in the front matter except the title page and the table of contents
all major sections and subsections (with numbering and indentation)
all endmatter.

It is usual for the titles of major sections, including their numbers if

appropriate, to be lined up on the left margin. Subsection numbers and titles
are often indented one tab space. Page numbers are listed on the right margin.

Examining a table of contents Activity

Look at how the table of contents has been constructed for this book.

The list of illustrations provides a list of all graphic material in the report
and the page number where each can be found. A heading is used. The term ‘List
of illustrations’ is used when a range of different types of illustrative material
is contained in the report (such as figures, diagrams, tables and photographs). If
only tables and figures are used, the list can be called a List of tables and figures.
If there is a range of different types of illustrations, the order of presentation is:
figures; diagrams; tables. Each of these is given a separate subheading.
For each illustration include:

identifier (for example, Figure 1)

title
page reference.

Format as for the table of contents.

List of Illustrations
Figure 1 Portfolio structure 9 Example
Figure 2 Organisational chart at 30 June 2005 12
Figure 3 Portfolio outcome and Optus structure and prices 15
Table 1 Consultancy contracts for the past three financial years 71
Table 2 Summary of all consultancies by division 72

Note: From Annual Report 2004–2005 (List of Illustrations), by Australian Government. Department
of Industry, Tourism and Resources, 2005, retrieved from <www.industry.gov.au/annualreport/
04_05/index.html>.
 188 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

In some reports the author wishes to acknowledge specific help in the

production of the report. If you wish to do this use a heading (Acknowledgments)
and write a description of the help received and acknowledge those who
provided it. Clearly this is a personal note and needs to use first and second
person pronouns.

Acknowledgments
Example
Acknowledgments Comment
My thanks are due to a range of people and General introduction
organisations who helped in the research.

Thanks also go to my colleagues at PSI, in Particular acknowledgment of anyone helping

particular to Karen Mackinnon who undertook in the project
computer analysis.

And finally I thank the students who took Acknowledgment of those who were the
part in the survey and gave up their time to subjects of the research
complete the questionnaires.

Note: The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. Report 2. Full and part-time students in higher
education: Their experiences and expectations (Acknowledgments), by C. Callender, 1997, Retrieved from
<www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe>.

A list of abbreviations can be included if a report uses abbreviations for

significant institutions or features. For example, if the report used ‘DITR’
to refer to the Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources, or ‘ACT’ for
the Australian Capital Territory, then these need to be noted in the list of
abbreviations. Abbreviations for words (for example, ‘e.g.’) are not included. In
some reports, the list of abbreviations is placed in the endmatter. In a scientific
report that uses a significant number of symbols, a separate page should be
used to list each symbol with ‘definition, quantity to which the symbol refers,
and the unit of measurement’ (Winckel & Hart, 2002, section 3.1.8 Symbols).
All reports contain an executive summary (also called an abstract). The
executive summary gives a succinct summary of all the sections in the report.
It is mostly written in the present tense, except where it discusses actions in
the past. The executive summary gives a good indication of the quality of the
report. Use it to:

state the topic area

outline the purpose (for example, to create recommendations)
describe the scope (the specific investigation undertaken)
summarise the main results (or findings)
mention the main recommendations (if included).
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 189

Page numbering
The preliminary matter is presented in a different manner from the report Each item of
text. Each item is on a separate page. As well, the page numbering system is preliminary matter is on
a separate page.
different. The preliminary matter is numbered using roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv
etc.). The title page is regarded as the first page, but is not numbered. The page
following the title page is thus page ii.

Endmatter

Overall structure
The endmatter includes (the order can vary): The endmatter is
inserted after the
list of recommendations (if included) report text.
appendices
glossary
reference list.

Content of endmatter pages

If there are recommendations that are fully justified within the report text, then
a list of recommendations is included on a separate page after the conclusion.
If the list is very short it may be placed immediately after the conclusion. All
recommendations are presented in summary form and are numbered. The most
comprehensive and important recommendations are placed first.

List of recommendations
Example
A Wholistic Approach: Gender Mainstreaming
1 That the WA government take a gender mainstreaming approach to policy and
practices in its commitment to closing the gender pay gap by applying a systematic
process of ‘gender analysis’ to existing policies and policy proposals to identify any
differential impact the policy would have on each gender.

Voluntary Strategies
2 That a combination of voluntary and regulatory strategies be adopted to address the
gender pay gap.
3 That employers conduct gender pay equity audits …
4 That these audits become part of the annual reporting process.

Note: From Report on the Review of the Gender Pay Gap in Western Australia, by T. Todd and J. Eveline,
2004, retrieved from <www.commerce.wa.gov.au/labourrelations/PDF/Publications/Gender_Pay_
Final_Rep.pdf>.
 190 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

Appendices are additions to the report that may be useful but would make the
report too cumbersome if they were included in the text. Typically, appendices are:

numbered using alphabetical numbering (such as Appendix A, Appendix B)

given a title indicating the content.

If a report contains technical words, a glossary of terms is included.

The heading Glossary is used, and the term and its full explanation listed
alphabetically.
Reports must contain a correctly formatted reference list (see Chapter 4).

Glossary
Example
Term Meaning
Accrual Accounting The accounting basis that brings items to account as
they are earned or incurred (and not as cash received
or paid) and recognises them in financial statements for
the related accounting period.

Administered items Revenues, expenses, assets and liabilities that the

Government controls, but which an agency or authority
manages on the Government’s behalf.

Note: From Annual Report 2002–2003 (Glossary), by Australian Government. Department of

Finance and Administration, n.d., retrieved from <www.finance.gov.au/publications/annual-reports/
annualreport02-03/glossary.html>.

Page numbering
Separate pages are used for the list of recommendations, unless they are
included immediately after the conclusion; each appendix; the glossary; and
the reference list. Page numbering, using arabic numbers, continues from the
report text section.

Activity Examining different types of reports

1 Use an internet search engine and a search statement to find examples of different
reports (search for: marketing AND report; or accounting AND report).
2 You can even search for specific features in a report (such as marketing AND report
AND “executive summary”).
3 Examine the reports you find to notice different report features.
 CHAPTER 8: DOING CASE STUDIES AND WRITING REPORTS 191

Table 8.2 Summary of headings and page numbering in reports

Format for headings Page numbering

Preliminary matter larger font than text roman numerals (i, ii, iii,
bold iv etc.)
numbering begins at the
title page

Report text Use a range of font sizes to arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 etc.)
indicate levels of heading numbering begins at the
bold Introduction
numbered

Endmatter larger font than text Arabic numerals

bold numbering continues from
alphabetical numbering for the report text section.
appendices (Appendix A etc.)

Go to our website <www.oup.com.au/orc/turner2e> for more activities on the skills covered

Activity
in this chapter.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have examined how case studies are used to test your ability
to apply course information to a chaotic ‘real life’ situation. Skills in problem
recognition and the generation of solutions have also been presented. Finally, we
have described how information can be presented as a report. In particular, we
noted the way reports use formatting and graphic presentation of information
to make reading easy.

GLOSSARY
abbreviations shortened versions of terms, either in the form of initial capital
letters (‘UNESCO’) or contracted versions of the words themselves (‘Dip. Ed.’).
acknowledgments a description of the help received by the author of a book or
report, including a list of those individuals and institutions who provided it.
appendices additions to the report that may be useful, but would make the book
or report too cumbersome if they were included in the text.
bullet points a brief ordered list with a parallel grammatical structure.
case study an account of a ‘real life’ situation used to help students learn to
apply abstract theory and concepts to a particular problem.
192 ESSENTIAL ACADEMIC SKILLS

diagrams a simple graphical view of a set of relationships.

disclaimer a statement occasionally added to large reports, stating that the
report is the work of the author(s) and hand signed by the author(s).
endmatter the material placed after the conclusion of a report.
executive summary (abstract) a succinct summary of all the sections in the
report.
figure a visual depiction of statistical information, such as bar charts, pie charts
and graphs.
glossary an alphabetical list of all the main technical terms used in the report,
plus a full explanation of each term.
headings short titles for sections indicating content and order.
letter of transmittal a short business letter attached to some reports as an
accompaniment.
preliminary matter material included before the report proper (before the
report text).
recommendations clear and specific statements of what needs to be done to
solve some problem.
report text the content of the report from the introduction to the conclusion.
SWOT analysis reveals strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of a
situation (or person).
symbol non-letter or non-number used to represent words or ideas (such as ‘¶’
for ‘paragraph’).
table presents statistical information in columns and rows.
table of contents a list of the main divisions within a report and the pages on
which each of these starts.
terms of reference a list of the areas a company or agency wishes to be covered
in a report.
timeline shows what happened, when.
title page the first page of a report, including information such as the title, name
of the author(s), destination of report, and date of submission.