Research Methods.

The beauty and necessity of good research design, based on facilitator story in the textbook. To the
question why we need to learn it?

“The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components
of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research
problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.”

The example in textbook about case study in prefrontal lobotomy show not conduct and claim this
method is working at majority. In the fact there are created more problem as well.

Two modes of thinking.

We may be to be fooled by first impression of type of thinking that quick and reflexive called “intuitive
thinking.” Another is “analytical thinking” is slow and reflective. Both have correlation between as we
learn to drive a car, we need to remember all of things as analytic and for more time we can drive to
home or school very quickly by intuitive way.

Thinking often related to heuristic that is rule of thumb or mental short cut for us to the world. But the
intuitive more than the analytical thinking, that why research avoid the pitfalls if we understand, it well
worth focusing on.

Scientific Method.

Psychologists refer as though and techniques methods different from other sciences. To protect
themselves on the error and get closer to the true.

Random Selection- procedure to ensure population has equal chance of selection. Random selection is a
form of sampling where a representative group of research participants is selected from a larger group
by chance.

Straw polls and other non-scientific surveys are based on indiscriminate collections of people’s opinions,
while responsible surveys are based on scientific methods of sampling, data collection, and analysis. Yet,
because they are so easy to obtain, data derived from non-scientific methods are often confused with
responsible survey results.

Reliability-consistent accuracy of measurement. The capacity to produce the same result for two
identical states: or, more operationally, the closeness of the initial estimated value(s) to the subsequent
estimated values.

Validity can be defined as the extent to which drawn conclusions of a research study can be considered
accurate and reliable from a statistical test. To achieve statistical validity, it is essential for researchers to
have sufficient data and choose the right statistical approach to analyze that data.

The concept of validity is also applied to research studies and their findings. Internal validity examines
whether the study design, conduct, and analysis answer the research questions without bias. External
validity examines whether the study findings can be generalized to other contexts.
Naturalistic observation is a qualitative research method where you record the behaviors of your
research subjects in real world settings. You avoid interfering with or influencing any variables in a
naturalistic observation. You can think of naturalistic observation as “people watching” with a purpose.

Case Study Design.

Case Study is the research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon.
A variety of techniques may be employed including personal interviews, direct-observation,
psychometric tests, and archival records.

Existence proof - demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can occur.

Self-Report measures and Surveys.

Self-report measures are the most widely used method to measure emotions and are based on
participants' self-reported (perceived) experience of emotions, rather than behavioral or physiological
emotional information.

Response set is describing several different conditions or factors that cue respondents to provide
inaccurate or false answers during surveys or interviews. tendency to provide inaccurate, or even false,
answers to self-report questions, such as those asked on surveys or in structured interviews.

Malingering - For example, someone might pretend to be injured so they can collect an insurance
settlement or obtain prescription medication.

The halo effect is the tendency for positive impressions of a person, company, country, brand, or product
in one area to influence positively or negatively.

The horn effect is a negative attitudes or behaviours to someone based on one aspect of their
appearance or character. An example of this is overweight people, who unfortunately are often
stereotyped as being lazy, or irresponsible.

Correlation Designs.

Correlation designs is research method to using two variables to find the association or link between
assumptions or questions that conclusion possibly. We can divide to co- and relate. If the two variables
linked. Identify the designs may tricker and not perfect, the researchers conduct the study may use.

A positive correlation means that the variables move in the same direction. Put another way, it means
that as one variable increase so does the other, and conversely, when one variable decrease so does the
other. A negative correlation means that the variables move in opposite directions. If two variables are
negatively correlated, a decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice
versa.

Correlation Does Not Indicate Causation.

Correlation is limited because establishing the existence of a relationship tells us little about cause and
effect. While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the other, it could also be that
some other factor, a confounding variable, is causing the systematic movement in our variables of
interest. In the ice cream/crime rate example mentioned earlier, temperature is a confounding variable
that could account for the relationship between the two variables.
 Statistics Methods.

Descriptive Statistics a set of brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set
representative of an entire or sample population. There are used to organize or summarize a set of data.
Examples include percentages, measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), measures of
dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance), and correlation coefficients.

Central tendency is defined as “the statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of
an entire distribution. “It aims to provide an accurate description of the entire data. It is the single value
that is most typical/representative of the collected data.

A correlation coefficient is a number between -1 and 1 that tells you the strength and direction of a
relationship between variables. In other words, it reflects how similar the measurements of two or more.
The variables are across a dataset. The more similar the measurements so strong or high score. The weak
is related to low coefficient score.

A scatter plot uses dots to represent values for two different numeric variables. The position of each dot
on the horizontal and vertical axis indicates values for an individual data point. Scatter plots are used to
observe relationships between variables.

Inferential statistics means the analysis of data so inferences (educated guesses or conclusions) can be
made about the population. Inferential statistics provides data from a sample that a researcher study
which enables him to make conclusions about the population.

Continued to correlation and other phenomenon.

illusory correlation is the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables even when no
such relationship exists.

Superstitions, those peculiar beliefs, and rituals that seem to defy logic, have been part of human
culture for centuries. Whether it’s avoiding black cats or crossing our fingers for good luck, superstitions
continue to influence our daily lives.

Experimental Designs.

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to different groups in an experiment. Types
of design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs.

The commonest way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the participants into two groups,
the experimental group, and the control group, and then introduce a change to the experimental group,
not the control group.

Ethical issues related to research.

In Psychology, several matters relating to ethical issues are informed consent, debrief, protection of
participants, deception, confidentiality, and withdrawal from an investigation. In addition, other things
that researchers also need to pay attention to are related to research design, data security and storage,
benefits, and risks, protected participants, and the process when dealing with sensitive matters.
 Research evaluation.

Evaluation research is defined as a form of disciplined and systematic inquiry that is carried out to arrive
at an assessment or appraisal of an object, program, practice, activity, or system with the purpose of
providing information that will be of use in decision making.

Peer review is a quality control process to help ensure that only high quality, methodologically sound
information is presented in the research.