Chapter No.

2
 Bio Chemistry
• Biochemistry is the study of chemical
compounds and reactions which occur in
living organisms.
• It overlaps extensively with organic chemistry
since most compounds in living cells contain
carbon.
 Importance of Bio chemistry
• Biochemistry is much more important branch of
biology due to following reasons.
• It provides information about all the processes
carried out in living organisms.
• It provides information about abnormal
mechanism which causes diseases.
• It provides such powerful techniques for the
investigation of various problems.
• e.g: for testing blood to see for any illness' or
disease.
 Cell
• Cell is the structural
and functional unit of
living organism.
• Cell is composed of
living material named
as protoplasm.
• Chemically Protoplasm
is made up of 70 to
90% of water.
 Cell
• If water is evaporated
then the remaining
protoplasm is called as
Dry weight.
• The compounds which
are produced by living
system are called as
Biochemicals
 Biochemicals
• The molecules which are found inside a
cell are termed as Biological Molecule or
Biomolecule or Bio-chemical.
 Biochemicals
• The molecules which are found inside a
cell are mainly made up of carbon so
these are called as Organic Compounds.
• But after the preparation of these
compounds in the laboratory, these are
termed as Biological Molecule or
Biomolecule or Bio-chemical.
 Biochemicals
• Six elements are considered to be the major
part of the composition of biological molecule
which are as follows:
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Nitrogen
• Oxygen
• Phosphorus
• Sulphur
 Chemical Composition of Cell
Atomic
Percent in Percent in Percent in
Element Symbol Number /
Universe Earth Human Body
Atomic Weight

Carbon C 6 / 12 0.02 0.03 18.5

Hydrogen H 1/1 91 0.14 9.5

Oxygen O 8 / 16 0.06 47 65

Nitrogen N 7 / 14 0.04 Trace 3.3

Phosphorus P 15 / 31 Trace 0.07 1

Sulfur S 16 / 32 Trace 0.03 0.3

Four classes of biological molecules
• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic acids
 Bio-Chemicals in Organism
• These molecules are found in different quantity in different
types of cells. Therefore the following table contains values
of these molecules are taken on average.
Molecules Bacterial Cell Mammalian Cell
Water 70 70
Protein 15 18
Carbohydrates 3 4
Lipids 2 3
DNA 1 0.25
RNA 6 1.10
Other Organic Compounds 2 2
Inorganic Ions 1 1
 Biochemical
• For each of the following you should be able
to:
Describe the properties
Know the general formulae & structure
Understand the role in animals & plants
•Water •Proteins
•Carbohydrates •Nucleic acids
•Lipids
 water
Definition
Water is a molecule composed of hydrogen and
oxygen
Occurrence
It is found in 70-90% in the cell
Importance
All the chemical reactions and processes occur
in the cell due the presence of water
Biological Importance of Water
• Best as a solvent
• High specific heat capacity
• High heat of vaporization
• Behave as an amphoteric molecule
• Cohesive force in water molecule
 Biological Importance of Water
Best as a Solvent
• Due to the polar nature water can dissolve
most of the ionic substances
• Water can also dissolve many non-polar
(covalent) substances.
• This ability of water makes it very important
for various functions which occur within a cell
 Biological Importance of Water
High specific heat capacity
• Specific heat capacity of a substance can be
defined as the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gm of that
substance by 1 oC.
• Water has high specific heat capacity which
enables protoplasm to survive in the hot
temperature
 Biological Importance of Water
High Heat of Vaporization
• The amount of heat which is required to
change the water from liquid to vapors.
• Due to hydrogen bonding in the water
molecule water has high heat of
vaporization
• This high heat of vaporization give the
stability to water molecule and stabilize
the protoplasm.
 Biological Importance of Water
High Heat of Vaporization
• In reverse condition, water needs to
lose a lot of energy to from ice
crystals, due to this reason the
content of the cell are unlikely to
freeze.
 Biological Importance of Water
As Amphoteric Molecule
• An amphoteric compound is a
molecule or ion that can react both as
an acid and as a base
• Water molecule is an amphoteric
molecule.
• Due to this property water molecule is
a perfect medium from the
biochemical reaction occur in the cell
 Biological Importance of Water
Cohesive Force in Water Molecule
• Cohesive force may be defined as the
force between the similar molecules.
• Due to polar nature water molecules
has cohesive force and the molecules
of water forms a chain.
• This property enables the water
molecule to behave as an excellent
transport and matrix medium
 Key concepts
• A macromolecule is a very large
molecule, such as protein, commonly
created by the polymerization of
smaller subunits (monomers).
• Monomer is a molecule or is a sub-
unit that can be bonded to other
identical molecules to form a polymer.
 Key concepts
• Polymers are the molecules which are
made up of similar smaller sub-units.
Polymers are usually chain like
molecules
• Macromolecules are Polymers.
• Polymers can be divided into four
major categories.
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and
Nucleic Acids
 Key concepts
• Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building
material made up of sugar
• Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic
molecules made up of fatty acids
• Proteins have many structures, resulting a
wide range of functions made up of
amino acids
• Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information made up of
nucleotide
 Biological Molecules
Biological molecules are typically large
molecules constructed from smaller subunits.

Monomer: single subunit

(mono = 1; -mer = unit)
Polymer: many units
(poly = many)

24
Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
What is a macromolecule?
Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
What is a macromolecule?
•Large and complex molecules, often chainlike
Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
What is a macromolecule?
•Large and complex molecules, often chainlike
•Monomer (simple subunits) building blocks form the chains

Monomer
 Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
What is a macromolecule?
•Large and complex molecules, often chainlike
•Monomer (simple subunits) building blocks form the chains
•Chains are called polymers

Polymer
Monomer
Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
What is a macromolecule?
•Large and complex molecules, often chainlike
•Monomer (simple subunits) building blocks form the chains
•Chains are called polymers
•Monomers are connected via dehydration reactions
Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
What is a macromolecule?
•Large and complex molecules, often chainlike
•Monomer (simple subunits) building blocks form the chains
•Chains are called polymers
•Monomers are connected via dehydration reactions

What’s a dehydration reaction?

Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers

HO 1 2 3 H HO H

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration removes a water

molecule, forming a new bond H2O

HO 1 2 3 4 H

Longer polymer
Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers

HO 1 2 3 H HO H

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration
Thisremoves
processacan
water
also be reversed
molecule, forming a new bond H2O

HO 1 2 3 4 H

Longer polymer
 Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
Hydrolysis
1 2 3 H HO
HO 1 2 3 4 H

Hydrolysis adds a water

molecule, breaking a bond H2H
O2O

1 2 3 4
HO 1 2 3 H HO H
 Biological Molecules
Condensation Reaction: The joining of two or
more monomers and formation of large
molecules is called as Condensation Reaction
dehydration synthesis: formation of large
molecules by the removal of water
-monomers are joined to form polymers
hydrolysis: breakdown of large molecules by the
addition of water
-polymers are broken down to monomers
35
Biological Molecules

36
 Carbon
• Carbon is the most important element in the
world of organic and Biochemistry
• Carbon is a unique element because it forms
unlimited compounds.
• Carbon has a property of catenation
• In chemistry, catenation is the bonding of
atoms of the same element into a series,
called a chain
 Carbon
• Due to this property carbon can form
unlimited no of compounds
• Carbon can form linear, branched or cyclic
bonds
• On the basis of no of bonds between two
carbon atoms, it may have single bond, double
covalent bond or triple covalent bond
 Carbon
LINEAR
Four classes of biological molecules
• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic acids
 1. Proteins
• Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
• Proteins are complex organic
compound having C, H, O and N in their
structure.
• Sometimes P and S are also presents.
• Due to presence of N they are termed
as Nitrogenous compounds.
41
 1. Proteins
• Proteins are building blocks tissues.
Many common parts of the living body
such as hairs, skin, nails and feathers
are made up of protein.
• Major sources of proteins are egg,
meat, fish and milk.

42
 1. Proteins
• Amino acids are building block of proteins.
• Proteins are polymers made up of amino
acids.
• Joined by dehydration synthesis
• The linkage which is present between two
amino acids is called as Peptide Linkage or
Peptide Bond
• 20 different amino acids
20 Essential
amino acids

44
20 Essential
amino acids

45
20 Essential
amino acids

46
 Amino acid structure
-central carbon atom surrounded by
-amino group
-carboxyl group
-single hydrogen
-variable R group

47
 Amino acid structure
Amino Acids examples

Glycine Serine Alanine

R is replaced R is replaced R is replaced

by H by CH2OH by CH3
 Linkage of Amino Acids
• During the process of condensation, two or
more amino acids can join together to form a
polypeptide.

49
 1. Proteins (Structure)
• Proteins can be divided into four
following classes on the basis of structure
1. Primary Structure
2. Secondary Structure
3. Tertiary Structure
4. Quaternary Structure
 1. Proteins (Structure)
Primary Structure

• Polypeptide chain having a linear sequence of

amino acids such as Insulin
 1. Proteins (Structure)
Secondary Structure

• A polypeptide chain of spirally coiled amino

acids e.g:- Myoglobin
 1. Proteins (Structure)
Tertiary Structure

• Arrangement of secondary structure into

three dimensional fold e.g_ Ribonuclease
 1. Proteins (Structure)
Quaternary Structure
• Association of two or more sub-units
(polypeptide chains into large sized
molecules is called quaternary structure.
• Example
Haemoglobin
 1. Proteins (Structure)
• Types of Quaternary Structure
• Quaternary structure may be of two types
• Homogenous quaternary structure
– If participating units are similar to each other
• Heterogeneous quaternary structure
– If participating units are dissimilar to each other
 Functions of Proteins
1) Proteins build new tissues and structure of the
cell
2) They maintain and replace damaged tissues.
3) They carry out regulating activities as enzymes
and hormones.
4) They are protective as antibodies and antigen
5) Proteins acts as receptors and transporters of
various substances outside the cell or inside a
cell as they are present in a membrane
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 2. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are those compound which
have carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in their
composition.
• In Carbohydrates, hydrogen and oxygen are
found in the same ration as in water so they
can be called as hydrated carbon.
• They are found 1% by weight in cells.
• They are generally sweet in taste and soluble
except polysaccharides.
57
 2. Carbohydrates
Classification
Carbohydrates can be classified into following
classes on the basis of numbers of monomers
present in that carbohydrate.
• A) Monosaccharides
• B) Oligosaccharides
• C) Polysaccharides

58
 A) Mono-saccharides
• These are simple sugars because they
cant be further hydrolyzed into simpler
sugars.
• General formula is CnH2nOn
• All monosaccharides are white crystalline
solids with sweet taste and soluble in
water.

59
 A) Mono-saccharides
• Most of the monosaccharides about 99%
are straight chain compound.
• Some common examples of
monosaccharides are glucose, fructose
and galactose.

60
 A) Monosaccharides
• These can be further classified depending upon
the no of carbon atoms present in a molecule.
# Carbons Category Name Relevant examples
3 Triose Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone
4 Tetrose Erythrose
5 Pentose Ribose, Ribulose, Xylulose
Glucose, Galactose, Mannose,
6 Hexose
Fructose
7 Heptose Sedoheptulose
Neuraminic acid, also called sialic
9 Nonose
acid 61
 A) Monosaccharides
These three of the following are the common
examples of monosacharides.
• Glucose
– Found in ripe fruits, sweet corns and honey
• Fructose
– Most abundant hexose found in nature generally
called fruit sugar
• Galactose
– Found largely in combined state in lactose (milk)
disaccharide.
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 A) Monosaccharides

Glyceraldehyde
A) Monosaccharides
A) Monosaccharides
 B) Oligosaccharides
• When two or more than two but less than
ten monomers of mono-saccharides are
covalently linked through a glycosidic
linkage they form a disaccharide.
• e.g: Sucrose, lactose and Maltose

66
B) Oligosaccharides

67
 B) Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharide
2 to 10
monomers

Disaccharide Dextrins
Made up of 2 3 to 10
monomers monomers

68
 B) Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharide
2 to 10 monomers

Dextrin any of
Disaccharides are various
those which are made
up by condensation of polysaccharides
two monomers. obtained by
. hydrolysis of
starch 69
 B) Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharide
2 to 10 monomers

A tasteless and
These are the odorless gummy
oligosaccharides substance that is
which are found in used as a thickening
most abundant agent and in
quantity.
adhesives and in
dietary supplements70
 B) Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharide
2 to 10 monomers

Dextrin any of various

Upon hydrolysis they polysaccharides obtained by
gives two units of hydrolysis of starch; a tasteless and
odorless gummy substance that is
monosaccharides used as a thickening agent and in
adhesives and in dietary supplements

71
 B) Oligosaccharides

• Sucrose = glucose + Fractose

(Source: Cane Sugar, common table sugar)
• Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
(Source : Milk)
• Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
( source: Malt sugar)

72
B) Oligosaccharides
 C) Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are high molecular
carbohydrates.
• They are formed by the
condensation of hundreds to
thousands of monosaccharides via
glycosidic linkage.
• e.g: Starch, Glycogen and Cellulose
74
 C) Polysaccharides
Starch
• It is the most important reserve food
material of higher plants.
• It is made up of many glucose
molecules joined together in straight
and branched chain. Amylose
(Straight chain) and Amylopectin
(branched chain).
75
 C) Polysaccharides
• Starch Continue
• Insoluble in Water
• Starch is converted into simple sugars
by the process of hydrolysis and then
oxidized to produce energy to be
used in metabolism of other bio
chemicals.

76
 C) Polysaccharides
Starch

77
 C) Polysaccharides
Cellulose
• Cellulose is glucose molecule polymer
produced by plants.
• The glucose units are joined in straight chain
and no there is no branching in the molecule
of cellulose is indicated.
• It is the main constituent of plant cell wall.
• It is the most abundant carbohydrate in
nature.
78
Carbohydrates

79
C) Polysaccharides

80
 C) Polysaccharides
Glycogen
• Glycogen is the main storage carbohydrate in
animals.
• It has a similar structure to amylopectin, but it
has more branches.
• Found in mainly in bacteria, fungi, liver and
muscle tissues of animal.
• Commonly known as Animal Starch.
• It structure allows it to be quickly built up or
broken down , matching the animals needs.
81
 C) Polysaccharides
Structure of Glycogen

82
C) Polysaccharides
C) Polysaccharides
C) Polysaccharides
 2. Carbohydrates (Functions)
• Carbohydrates are the potential source
of energy.
• The energy is utilized in body
metabolism.
• Carbohydrates also act as storage of food
molecules.

86
 2. Carbohydrates (Functions)
• Carbohydrates works as building,
protective and supporting structure for
example cellulose is the major component
of cell wall.
• In animals chitin ( a nitrogen contain poly-
sacchride) forms the exoskeleton of
arthropodes, insects and fungi.

87
 3. Lipids
• A chemically diverse class of organic
molecules that are grouped together
because they are all largely nonpolar.
• Because they are nonpolar they are
soluble in organic solvents like
chloroform, benzene, acetone, paint
thinner, etc. and insoluble in water

88
 3. Lipids
• Lipids are the organic compounds
contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen like
carbohydrates but they contain much
lesser ration of oxygen than
carbohydrate.
• In 1943 Bloor proposed the term lipids.

89
 3. Lipids
Lipids can be classified into following four
groups.
i. Acylglycerol
ii. Waxes
iii. Phospholipds
iv. Terpenoids

90
 i) Acylglycerol (Fats and Oils)
• These are found in both plants and animals
• These provide energy for metabolic functions.
• These contain twice amount of energy than
carbohydrates.
• It is estimated that a person of avg size
contain 16 kg of fats which is equivalent to
144000 K Cal of energy which takes a very
long time to deplete.

91
 Structure of Acylglycerol
Acylglycerol = 1 Glycerol Molecule + 3 Fatty Acids

glycerol
 Glycerol molecule combine with three fatty
glycerol acids joined by dehydration forming
acylglycerol. (triacylglycerol / Triglyceride).
 i) Acylglycerol (Fats and Oils)
There are two types of acylglycerol
• A) Saturated (Fats)
• B) Un Saturated (Oils)

94
 i) Acylglycerol (Fats and Oils)
There are two types of acylglycerol
• A) Saturated fatty acids have no C=C bonds -
all carbons in the chain are bonded to as many
hydrogens as possible.

95
 i) Acylglycerol (Fats and Oils)
• B) Unsaturated fatty acids have some C=C
bonds in the chain – the carbon chain is
not completely saturated with
hydrogens.

96
 ii) Waxes
• Waxes are simple lipids having one
molecule of fatty acids forming ester bond
with one molecule of long chain alcohol.
e.g: Bee’s Wax
• These are found as protective coating on
stem, stalks, leaves petals, fruit skins,
animal skins, fur and feathers.
• Waxes are water repellent and non-
reactive.
97
 iii) Phospholipids
• A phospholipid is similar to triacylglycerol
except that one fatty acid is replaced by
phosphate group.

99
 iii) Phospholipids
• Phospholipids consist of two ends.
One is hydrophilic (water loving) end.
Other is hydrophobic end(water fearing or
repelling ) end.
• These are present in all living cell
frequently associated with membrane.
• These are responsible for various vital
functions such as regulation of cell
permeability and transport process. 100
iii) Phospholipids
 iv) Terpenoids
• Terpenoids is a large and important class
of lipids.
• Built up of isoprenoid (C5H8) units.
• They help in oxidation and reduction
process like terpenes
• These are essential component of plant
oils like menthal, camphar and mint etc
102
 iv) Terpenoids
• They are also found in cell membrane as
cholestrol
• These are present as pigments like carotene,
xanthophyll
• These can be further divided into
a) Terpenes
b) Steroids
c) Caretenoids

103
 a)Terpenes
• Terpenes are made up of isoprenoid unit.
• Small size terpenes are volatile in nature.
• Terpenes produce special fragrence hence
used in perfumes and air freshener such as
• Myrcene from oil of bay
• Garanoil from Rose
• Limonene from Lemon Oil
• Menthol from peppermint oild
104
 b) Steroids
• Lipids with a carbon skeleton that
contains four fused rings
• Three six membered carbon ring and
one 5-membered carbon ring.
• These both ring combine and form a
17 carbon atom nucleus called as
Steroid
 b) Steroids
•Includes
hormones-
Secreted chemicals
that that travel
through the body
to act on a target
 b) Steroids
•Also includes
cholesterol-common
component of animal
cell membranes and a
precursor from which
other steroids and sex
hormones are
synthesized
 c) Caretenoids
• Carotenoids are chemicals with nutritive
properties that exist in the pigment that
colors plants and animals.
• As a fat-soluble material, carotenoids are
ingested by humans in countless colorful
fruits and vegetables.
• They are important as antioxidants, as well
as in their capacity to get converted to
essential vitamins.
 c) Caretenoids
Caretenoids
consist of two
6-membered
carbon ring
attached with
each other by
double bond
fatty acid like
carbon chain
 4. Nucleic acids
Discovery
• A 22 year old Swiss physician and
chemist, Friedrich Miescher isolate
a substance from the nuclei of pus
cell.
• He finds that molecule a quite
different from other biomolecules.
 4. Nucleic acids
Discovery
• He named that molecule as nuclein
because that was isolated from the
nucleus.
• Because that molecule contain the
properties of acid that’s y he
rename that molecule as nucleic
acid
 4. Nucleic acids
Introduction
• Nucleic Acids are found in all living
things, from virus to Man.
• Nucleic Acid are found either in free
state or bound with protein molecule
as nucleoprotein.
 4. Nucleic acids
Introduction
• Nucleic Acids are found in all living
things, from virus to Man.
• Nucleic Acid are found either in free
state or bound with protein molecule
as nucleoprotein.
 4. Nucleic acids
Types
Types of nucleic acid
There are two types of nucleic acid.
1. DNA (Deoxyribose nucleic acid)
2. RNA (Ribose nucleic acid)
 4. Nucleic acids
DNA is found mainly in the nuclear
material of cell.
RNA is mostly found ( about 90%)in
the cytoplasm of cell.
10% RNA is found in the nucleolus.
 Nucleotide
• Nucleic Acids are the polymer of nucleotide
consist of following three parts.
1. Pentose Sugar
( 5 carbon sugar)
2. Phosphoric Acid
( H3PO4)
3. Nitrogenous Base
( Organic Base)
 Nucleotide

Pentose Sugar
 Nucleotide
Phosphoric Acid

H3PO4
Phosphoric Acid attached with the 5th
carbon atom of pentose sugar in each
nucleotide.
 Nucleotide
• Nitrogenous Base
• There are two types of
nitrogenous bases i.e. Purine
and Pyrimidine
 Formation of Nucleotide
• Nucleotide forms in two steps.
1. First nitrogenous base
combines with pentose sugar
at its first carbon and form a
nucleoside.
2. Secondly the phosphoric acid
combines with the 5th carbon
of pentose sugar to form a
nucleotide.
 Types of Nucleotide
• Nucleotide are generally found in
the form of chain as nucleic acid or
we can say it polynucleotide but
they are also found as in the
following form within a cell
• mononucleotide.
• dinucleotide.
 Types of Nucleotide
Mononucleotide
These exists singly in the cell or a
part of other molecule but not with
DNA or RNA.
Some nucleotide have extra
phosphate groups.
e.g: ATP adenosine triphosphate.
 Types of Nucleotide
ATP consist of Adenine base and
three phosphate bond.
When ATP convert into ADP it
releases energy which is equivalent
to 7.3 K.Cal / mole or 31.81 KJ/mole
 Types of Nucleotide

MonoNucleotide
 Types of Nucleotide
ATP converting into AMP and releasing energy
 Types of Nucleotide
Dinucleotide
• When two nucleotide are covalently bond
together, they form a dinucleotide.
• E.g: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
• Each nucleotide is linked together by
phosphate of one another.
Dinucleotide
 Types of Nucleotide
Dinucleotide
• NAD is vitamin constituent
• NAD is a co-enzyme that carries electron
and work with dehydrogenase enzyme.
• It removes two hydrogen atom from its
substrate and form NADH.
 Types of Nucleotide
Dehydrogenase enzyme
• An enzyme that catalyzes the removal of
hydrogen from a substrate and the transfer of
the hydrogen to an acceptor in an oxidation-
reduction reaction.
 Polynucleotide
• Nucleic Acids are polynucleotide.
• Genetic information is encoded in a
nucleic acid molecule in a particular and
simple fashion.
• Four different
nucleotides make
up each informational
nucleic acid molecule.
 Polynucleotide
• Nucleic Acids are polynucleotide.
• They have two most important functions.
A) Repositories (store house of genetic
information)
B) Transmitters (Transference of genetic
information or carrier of genetic information)
 Polynucleotide
DNA and RNA have the similar structure with some differences.

• DNA contains • RNA contain ribose

deoxyribose sugar sugar (C5H10O5).
(C5H10O4). • RNA contains A, G, C
• DNA contains A, G, C, and U containing
and T containing nucleotide.
nucleotide. • RNA is mainly single
• DNA is double stranded excrept
stranded helical rRNA.
structure. • RNA is of three types.
• DNA is of one type. tRNA, rRNA and
mRNA.
 Polynucleotide
• DNA as hereditary material.
• Harshey and Chase proved that DNA is a
genetic material through an experiment.
• A bacteriophage consists solely of DNA and
protein. When it infects a bacterium it injects
its DNA only into the bacterium where it
directs the synthesis of more phages.
 Polynucleotide
• RNA as carrier of Information.
• DNA require some messenger or carrier that
can carry information from DNA (nucleus) to
the cytoplasm.
• These carriers or messengers are ribose
nucleic acids (RNA).
• Genetic information flows in a cell from DNA
to mRNA and than into the cytoplasm in a two
step process for the synthesis of protein.
 Polynucleotide
• Two step process.
1. Transcription
2. Translation
 Polynucleotide
1. Transcription
In this process information is copied from
DNA to mRNA.
It carries information from nucleus to the
cytoplasm to ribosomes.
 Polynucleotide
2. Translation
In this step two other types of RNA i.e tRNA
and rRNA translate the information of mRNA
into the specific sequence of amino acids
which help in the synthesis of protein.
DNA Transcription
DNA Video.FLV
Protein Synthesis Animation Video
 Conjugated Molecules
• When biomolecules of two different groups
are combined together and work as a single
molecule they are called as Conjugated
molecule.
E.g: A molecule of nucleic acid combine with
protein they form a nucleoprotein.
• These can be divided into following four
groups.
1. Glycolipids or cerebrosides.
2. Glycoproteins or Mucoids.
3. Nucleoproteins
4. Lipoproteins.
 Glycolipds
• When lipid and carbohydrate combine
together with a nitrogenous base they form a
glycolipid.
• They are also called as cerebrosides b/c they
are important constituent of brain.
 Glycoproteins or Mucoids
• Glycoproteins are formed when a molecule of
carbohydrate combine with protein molecule.
• Most of the oligo and polysacchrides in the
animals and plants cells are linked covalently
to protein molecules.
 Nucleoproteins
• When nucleic acids are combine with proteins
they form nucleoproteins.
• These molecules are week acids and soluble in
water.
 Lipoproteins
• These molecules are the combination of lipids
and proteins.
• Lipoproteins help in the transportation of lipid
in the blood plasma as low density protein or
free fatty acids.
 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The structure of nucleic acids
• Nucleotide monomers link to form 5' end

polynucleotides (or nucleic acids) 5'C

3'C

Phosphate Nitrogenous
group base

5'C

3'C
5'C Sugar
3'C

3' end
 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The structure of nucleic acids
• Nucleotide monomers link to form 5' end
polynucleotides (or nucleic acids) 5'C
• Nucleotides contain three parts: 3'C
– Nitrogenous base
• Purines (Adenine and Guanine) Phosphate Nitrogenous
group base
• Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Thymine,
Uracil) 5'C
– 5-C sugar (Deoxyribose in DNA, Ribose
in RNA)
– Phosphate group 3'C
5'C Sugar
3'C

3' end
 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The structure of nucleic acids
• Nucleotide monomers link to form 5' end
polynucleotides (or nucleic acids)
• Nucleotides contain three parts: 5'C
– Nitrogenous base
• Purines (Adenine and Guanine) 3'C
• Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Thymine,
Uracil) Phosphate Nitrogenous
– 5-C sugar (Deoxyribise in DNA, Ribose in group base
RNA)
– Phosphate group 5'C
• Adjacent nucleotides are joined by a
phosphodiester linkage (phosphate
group that links the sugars of two 3'C
nucleotides) 5'C Sugar
3'C

3' end
 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The structure of nucleic acids
• Nucleotide monomers link to form 5' end
polynucleotides (or nucleic acids)
• Nucleotides contain three parts: 5'C
– Nitrogenous base
• Purines (Adenine and Guanine) 3'C
• Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Thymine,
Uracil) Phosphate Nitrogenous
– 5-C sugar (Deoxyribise in DNA, Ribose in group base
RNA) Notice the distinct 5’ and 3’ ends
– Phosphate group 5'C
• Adjacent nucleotides are joined by a
phosphodiester linkage (phosphate
group that links the sugars of two 3'C
nucleotides) 5'C Sugar
3'C

3' end
 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The DNA double helix
• Unlike RNA, DNA consists of two
polynucleotides that form a double helix
5' end 3' end

3' end 5' end

 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The DNA double helix
• Unlike RNA, DNA consists of two
polynucleotides that form a double helix
• The two polynucleotides run in opposite 5 5' end 3' end
→ 3 directions (antiparallel)

3' end 5' end

 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The DNA double helix
• Unlike RNA, DNA consists of two
polynucleotide that form a double helix
• The two polynucleotide run in opposite 5 5' end 3' end
→ 3 directions (antiparallel)
• The nitrogenous bases pair up and form
hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with
thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with
cytosine (C)

3' end 5' end

 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The DNA double helix
• Unlike RNA, DNA consists of two
polynucleotides that form a double helix
• The two polynucelotides run in opposite 5 5' end 3' end
→ 3 directions (antiparallel)
• The nitrogenous bases pair up and form
hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with
thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with
cytosine (C)
• The strands are complimentary!

3' end 5' end

 Nucleic acids store and transmit
hereditary information
The DNA double helix
• Unlike RNA, DNA consists of two
polynucleotides that form a double helix
• The two polynucelotides run in opposite 5 5' end 3' end
→ 3 directions (antiparallel)
• The nitrogenous bases pair up and form
hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with
thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with
cytosine How
(C) would an RNA molecule look different?
• The strands are complimentary!

3' end 5' end

 Glossary
• Glossary
•
• NADP:
• nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (when its oxidation state is unknown or unspecified). Besides being a coenzyme, NADP is a precursor
of NADP
•
NAD:
• nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (when its oxidation state is unknown or unspecified). Besides being a coenzyme, NAD is a precursor of NADP, of
mono- and poly-ADP-ribosylation of some proteins, and of cADP-ribose.
•
Co-enzyme:
• A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity. These proteins are
commonly enzymes, and cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations.
• Reducing agent
• A substance that chemically reduces other substances, especially by donating an electron or electrons.
•
H2PO4-
• H2PO4- is called dihydrogen phosphate ion.
•
• HPO42-
• monohydrogen phosphate ion HPO42-
• (NO3-)
• Nitrate ion (NO3-)
• Aerobic Respiration:
• The metabolic process that uses oxygen to break down food and release energy. The energy is used to make adenosine triphosphate, the high-
energy compound that acts as the fuel for all of the body's energy-consuming activities.