Units and Measurements

Introduction: Physics is the branch of science which deals with the scientific methodology of gaining
knowledge about the fundamental nature and properties of various physical things and process. It provides
both qualitative as well as quantitative information’s. Almost in all physical problems, quantities like amount
of mass, range of length, span of time, quantity of force, pressure, or energy, strength of electric field current
sent through a circuit, etc., require their measurement for direct as well as comparative studies.
Thus, measurement of various physical quantities is an integral part of the study of physics. Essentially,
physics is that branch of science in which measurement of physical observations are performed and inference
are drawn out from those measured quantities to form and analyse physical principles.
For proper processing of various concepts, we must be able to express the measured values in numerical
figures. For example, the measured weight of an object is expressed as 35 kg in which 35 is the numerical
figure. However, writing only the numerical figure 35 (without writing kg) will not mean anything. This shows
that measurement is always done through a method of comparison. For example, a definite mass is taken as
‘one kilogram’ and all other masses are determined by measuring the number of times this mass is contained
in those masses.
The complete description of physical quantity requires
1. The unit in terms of which the quantity is expressed and
2. The numeric that will show how many times the unit is contained in that quantity.
Physical Quantity: A quantity which can be measured directly or indirectly is called physical quantity.
e.g., mass of an object; length of an object; velocity; acceleration; atmospheric pressure etc.
Measurement: Comparison of a physical quantity with another homogeneous quantity of same kind taken
as a standard to find out how many times the given standard is contained in the given physical Quantity.
Unit: A unit is a standard Quantity with which a physical Quantity of the same kind is compared for
measuring it. The numeric expressing the magnitude of a physical quantity is inversely proportional to the
size of the corresponding unit.
Note: The magnitude of a physical quantity is the product of unit (u) in which the quantity is measured and
the number (n) of times that unit is contained in the given physical quantity.
Magnitude of a physical quantity = number ( n )  unit ( u )
Ex : mass of a bag  
1 kg
( n) (u )
 
Length of a rod = 4 m

Choice of Standard Unit:

Following important points are considered. It should be in the choice of a unit.
1. The unit should be accepted internationally.
2. Should be accurately defined.
3. Should be convenient.
4. Should be easily reproducible.
5. Should not change with change in time.
6. Unit should be imperishable.
7. Unit should not change with change in Physical conditions like pressure, temperature.
Systems of Units
a) The Foot-Pound-Second (FPS) system is the British Engineering System of units, which uses foot as
the unit of length, pound as unit of mass and second as unit of time.
b) The Centimetre-Gram-Second (CGS) system is the Gaussian system which uses centimetre, gram and
second as the three basic units for length, mass and time respectively. French scientists came out with
the proposal of this system of measurement.
c) The Metre-Kilogram-Second (MKS) system is based on metre, kilogram and second as the
fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively. In later course, scientists in international
conference had a common feeling that the size of the basic unit’s ‘centimetre’ and ‘gram’ both are
small for common purpose. Thus, the CGS system was modified into MKS system.
d) The Standard International (SI) system. As mention above, even the MKS system was insufficient for
measurement and computation in the field other than mechanics. Thus, the MKS system was extended
and in the Fourteenth ‘General Conference on Weight and Measures’ held in 1971, a new system was
proposed, which was accepted and adopted by the scientists all over the world. This new system was
named as “Le Systeme Internationale d’Unites” or the “Standard International System”,
abbreviated as SI System.
Fundamental and Derived Units
In mechanics, there are three physical quantities namely mass, length and time which are called fundamental
physical quantities.
But while discussing other branches of physics, we come across other fundamental quantities. Such as
temperature, luminous intensity, electric current and amount of substance. These quantities are called
fundamental quantities because
1. They are all independent of each other.
2. They represent our basic scientific notion.
3. There is no other quantity simpler to them.
4. All other physical quantities can be obtained from them.
In addition to these there are two supplementary quantities → Plane Angle
→ Solid Angle
The SI unit is based on the following seven fundamentals units and two supplementary units as listed in the
table below:
Fundamental Units:
Basic Physical Quantity Fundamental Unit Symbol Used
Mass kilogram kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Quantity of Matter mole mol

Supplementary Units:
Supplementary Physical Quantity Supplementary Unit Symbol Used
Plane Angle radian rad
Solid Angle steradian sr
Derived Units: The units of measurement of all other physical quantities, which can be obtained from
fundamental units are called derived units. E.g.: Unit of speed is derived unit.
Distance Unit of distance
speed =  Unit of speed = = m s −1
Time Unit of time
Some Derived Units:
 Physical Quantity Derived Unit Symbol Used
Density kg m −3 
Acceleration m s −2 a
Momentum kg ms −1 p
Force newton or N F
Pressure pascal or Pa P
Torque Nm 
Power watt or W P
Electric potential Volt or V V
Electric capacity farad or F C
Magnetic flux weber or Wb 

Note:
a) One radian is the angle subtended at centre of a circle by an arc on its
circumference of equal in length to the radius of the circle.
s = r
s Arc
 = ( radian )  Angle =
r Radius
If s = r   = 1 radian
b) Steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of the sphere, spherical
area on the surface of the sphere, where the spherical area has a circular
boundary and area equal to the square of the radius of the sphere.
a
=  If  =1 steradian then a = r 2
r2
c) Abbreviation in powers of ten or Prefix:
Multiples and Submultiples Prefix Symbol
12
10 tera T
9
10 giga G
6
10 mega M
3
10 kilo k
2
10 hecto h
101 deca da
100
10−1 deci d
10−2 centi c
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro µ
10−9 nano 
10−12 pico p
10−15 femto/fermi f
10−18 atto a
0
Note: 1angstrom = A = 10−10 m .
1. Astronomical Unit (AU):
It is the average distance of the centre of the sun from the centre of the earth.
1 AU = 1.496 1011 m = 1.5 1011 m.
2. Light Year (ly):
One light year is the distance travelled by in vacuum in one complete year.
 1 year = 3 108  ( 365  24  60  60 ) metre
 1ly = 9.46 1015 m.
3. Par sec:
Par sec is a unit of distance used in astronomy, equal to about 3.26 light years (3.086 × 1013 kilometres).
One par sec corresponds to the distance at which the mean radius of the earth's orbit (distance of the
centre of the sun from the centre of the earth) subtends an angle of one second of arc.
Significant Figures: A significant figure expresses the accuracy with which a physical quantity may be
expressed. The digits, whose values are accurately known in a particular measurement, are called significant
figure.
Greater the number of significant figures obtained when making a measurement, the more accurate is the
measurement. Conversely, a measurement made to few significant figures is not very accurate one. E.g.: A
recorded figure of 1.21 means the quantity can be relied on as accurate to three significant figures. A figure
accurate to four significant figures.
Every measurement result in a number that includes reliable digits and uncertain digits. Reliable digits plus
the first uncertain digit are called significant digits or significant figures. These indicate the precision of
measurement which depends on least count of measuring instrument.
Example, period of oscillation of a pendulum is 1.62 s. Here 1 and 6 are reliable and 2 is uncertain. Thus, the
measured value has three significant figures.

Rules for determining number of significant figures

➢ All non-zero digits are significant.
e.g.
Number Number of significant figures
43 2
237 3
99635 5

➢ All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant irrespective of decimal place.
e.g.
Number Number of significant figures
403 3
2007 4
99000635 8
➢ All zero’s to right of last non-zero digits are not significant figures
e.g.
Number Number of significant figures
40 1
2370 3
909600 4

➢ For a value less than 1, zeroes after decimal and before non-zero digits are not significant. Zero before
decimal place in such a number is always insignificant.
e.g.
 Number Number of significant figures
0.032 2
0.00739 3
0.000028 2

➢ All zeroes to the right to the right of a non-zero digit are significant figures.
e.g.
Number Number of significant figures
0.90 2
0.0780 3
0.00002080 4

➢ Trailing zeroes in a number without decimal place are insignificant

➢ Trailing zeroes in a number with decimal place are significant.

Cautions to remove ambiguities in determining number of significant figures

• Change of units should not change number of significant digits. Example, 4.700m = 470.0 cm =
4700 mm. In this, first two quantities have 4 but third quantity has 2 significant figures.
• Use scientific notation to report measurements. Numbers should be expressed in powers of 10
like a x 10b where b is called order of magnitude. Example, 4.700 m = 4.700 x 102 cm = 4.700 x
103 mm = 4.700 x 10-3 In all the above, since power of 10 are irrelevant, number of significant figures
are 4.
• Multiplying or dividing exact numbers can have infinite number of significant digits. Example, radius
= diameter / 2. Here 2 can be written as 2, 2.0, 2.00, 2.000 and so on.

Rules for Arithmetic operation with Significant Figures:

A. Multiplication or Division: The final result should retain as many significant figures as there in
the original number with the lowest number of significant digits.
Mass
Example: Density = . If mass = 4.237 g (4 significant figures) and Volume = 2.51 cm3 (3
Volume
significant figures).
4.237 g
Density = = 1.68804 g cm −3 = 1.69 g cm −3 . (3 significant figures)
2.51 cm3
B. Addition or Subtraction: The final result should retain as many decimal places as there in
the original number with the least decimal places.
Example: Addition of 436.32 (2 digits after decimal), 227.2 (1 digit after decimal) and 0.301 (3
digits after decimal) is = 663.821.
Since 227.2 is precise up to only 1 decimal place, Hence, the final result should be 663.8.

Rules for Rounding off the uncertain digits

Rounding off is necessary to reduce the number of insignificant figures to adhere to the rules of arithmetic
operation with significant figures.

S. No. Insignificant Digit Preceding Digit Example (rounding off to

two decimal places)
 1 Insignificant digit to be Preceding digit is raised by 1. Number – 3.137
dropped is more than 5 Result – 3.14
2 Insignificant digit to be Preceding digit is left Number – 3.132
dropped is less than 5 unchanged. Result – 3.13
3 Insignificant digit to be If preceding digit is even, it is Number – 3.125
dropped is equal to 5 left unchanged. Result – 3.12
4 Insignificant digit to be If preceding digit is odd, it is Number – 3.135
dropped is equal to 5 raised by 1. Result – 3.14

Dimensions:
Powers to which the fundamental quantities must be raised to represent a given physical quantity. The word
‘Dimension’ refers to size.

e.g.: Area = length  breadth   A =  L    L  =  L2 

We say that area has two dimensions in length. The dimensional formula of any physical quantity represents
or explains its relation with the fundamental quantity.
All physical quantities can be represented as the combination of some seven fundamental or base quantities.
The dimensions of the Base quantities are denoted with square brackets ‘[ ]’.
Base Quantity Symbol for its Dimension
Length [L]
Mass [M]
Time [T]
Current [A]
Thermodynamic Temperature [θ]
Luminous Intensity [cd]
Amount of Substance [mol]

In mechanics, all the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of the Dimension [L], [M] and [T].
For example:
1. Volume occupied by an object is the product of length, breadth and height.
Length → L Breadth → L Height → L
Volume =  L    L    L  =  L 
3

As the volume is independent of Mass and Time. It is said to possess zero dimensions in mass [M0],
dimensions in time [T0] and three dimensions in length [L3]
Volume →  M 0 L3T 0  → L3
2. Dimensional formula for the ‘density’
Mass M 
Density = =  3  =  ML−3 
Volume  L 
 Dimensional formula for density is  M 1 L−3T 0 
distance  L 
3. Speed = =   =  LT −1  =  M 0 LT
1 −1

time T 
velocity
Similarly, Force = mass  acceleration = mass 
time
 LT −1 
 F  = M  =  MLT −2  =  M 1 LT
1 −2

T
Hence, force has one-dimension mass, one-dimension length and negative two-dimension time.
 Area = ( length ) i.e. Length  Breadth
2

L L
Dimensional formula of area is  L2  →  M 0 L2T 0 
SI unit of area,  L2  → m 2
Volume =  L3  i.e. Length  Breadth  height

Density (  ) =
Mass

 M  =  M 1L−3T 0 
Volume  L3   

Hence, S I unit will be kg m −3

Speed or velocity 
Distance

 L    M 0 LT
1 −1

time  
T 

S I unit is m s −1

Change in velocity
Acceleration = ( rate of change of velocity )
time taken for the change
 LT −1 
 
a    M 0 LT
1 −2

T 
Hence, S I unit is m s −2
Momentum = mass  velocity
 p  →  M    LT −1  →  M 1LT
1 −1

Hence, S I unit is kg m s −1
Force = mass  acceleration
 F  →  M    LT −2  →  M 1LT
1 −2

Hence, S I unit is kg m s −2 or N or newton
Force
Pressure =
Area
 M LT 
1 1 −2

   →  2  →  M 1L−1T −2 
 L 
Hence, S I unit is kg m −1 s −2 or N m −2 or Pa
Work = Force  displacement
Work  →  F    d  →  M 1LT
1 −2
   L  →  M 1 L2T −2 
Hence, S I unit is kg m 2 s −2 or joule or J
Work
Power =
Time
 M 1 L2T −2 
 P → →  M 1 L2T −3 
T 
Hence, S I unit is kg m 2 s −3 or watt or W

Gravitational Constant: According to Newton’s law of gravitation

 force  ( distance )
2

G=
( mass )
2

 M 1 LT
1 −2
   L2 
G  → →  M −1 L3T −2 
 M 
2

Hence, S I unit will be N m 2 kg −2

Moment of Force or Torque
Moment of force ( torque ) = force  ( perpendicular distance ) →  M 1L2T −2  .
Hence, S I unit will be N m

Temperature Gradient
Temperature
Temperature gradient =
length
  →  L−1 
Temperature gradient  →
 L  
Hence, S I unit is K m −1
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity
Heat energy  Length
K=
Area  Temperature difference  Time
 M 1 L2T −2    L 
K  → 2 →  M 1 LT  
1 −3 −1

 L      T 
Hence, S I unit is W m −1 K −1
Specific Heat Capacity
Heat energy
Specific heat capacity =
mass  temperature difference
 M 1 L2T −2 
 Specific heat capacity  → →  M 0 L2T −2 −1 
   
M  
Dimensional Formula of some physical quantities:
Physical quantity Physical Formula Dimensional Formula SI Units
Area length  breadth  M 0 L2T 0  m2
Volume length  breadth  height  M 0 L3T 0  m3
Density mass  M 1 L−3T 0  kg m −3
volume
Speed or velocity Distance  M 0 LT
1 −1
 m s −1
time
Acceleration Change in velocity  M 0 LT
1 −2
 m s −2
time taken for the change
Force mass  acceleration  M 1 LT
1 −2
 N
mass  velocity  M 1 LT  kg m s −1
Momentum 1 −1

Work Force  displacement  M 1 L2T −2  joule or J

Power Work  M 1 L2T −3  watt or W

Time
 Pressure Force  M 1 L−1T −2  N m −2
Area
Kinetic energy 1
 ( mass )( velocity )  M 1 L2T −2  joule or J
2
Potential energy ( mass )  g  ( height )  M 1 L2T −2  joule or J
force  time  M 1 LT  kg m s −1
Impulse 1 −1

Homework Questions
Find the dimensional formula of the following quantities
1. Electric Charge = current × time.
Work
2. Electric Potential = .
Charge
( Charge )
2

3. Electric Capacitance = .
2  ( Energy )
4. Momentum = mass × velocity.
5. Impulse = Force × Time.
1
6. Frequency =
time
arc length
7. Angle, θ = .
radius
angle
8. Angular velocity = .
time
Angular velocity
9. Angular acceleration = .
time
force
10. Surfaces tension = .
length
force
11. Stress = .
area
elongation
12. Strain = .
original length
force
13. Viscosity = .
area  velocity gradient
Quantity of heat
14. Entropy = .
Temperature
Potential difference
15. Electrical Resistance =
Current
Energy
16. Plank’s Constant =
Frequency
Application of Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis:
The process of examination of dimensions of various physical quantities involved in a relation is called
dimensional analysis.

Dimensional Analysis helps us to:

1. Convert unit of a physical quantity from one system to another system.
2. Check correctness of an equation.
3. Deduce relation between physical quantity.

Note: Dimensional formula of various quantities can be divided into four types.
 1. Dimensional constants. These are the quantities whose values are constant and they possess
dimensions. For example, velocity of light in vacuum, universal gravitational constant, universal gas
constant, Plank’s constant etc.
2. Dimensional variables. These are the quantities whose values are variable and they possess
dimensions. For example, area, volume, density, velocity, acceleration, force, etc.
3. Dimensionless constant. These are the quantities whose values are constant, but they do not possess
dimensions. For example, pure number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…, mathematical constants '  ' and ‘e’ etc.
4. Dimensionless variables. These are the quantities whose values are variables and they do not have
dimensions. For example, angle, strain, specific gravity etc.

Fourier’s Principle of Homogeneity:

The magnitudes of physical quantities of similar nature can be added, subtracted or compared with one another
only if they have the same dimensions. This is called Fourier’s Principle of Homogeneity of dimensions.
It’s stated also as:
“The dimensions of all terms in a physical relation on either side of an expression must be same.”

Conversion of one system of unit into another:

This is based on the facts that magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same, whatever be the system of
its measurement i.e. Q = n1u1 = n2u2 .................................................................... (1)
where u1 and u 2 are two units of measurement of the quantity Q and n1 and n2 are their respective numerical
values. Suppose M 1 , L1 , T1 are fundamental units of mass, length and time in one system; M 2 , L2 , T2 are
fundamental units of mass, length and time in another system; a, b and c are respective dimensions of quantity
in mass, length and time on both the systems. The units of measurement u1 and u2 (n1 and n2 are their respective
numerical values) of the quantity on the two system would be
u1 =  M 1a L1bT1c  and u2 =  M 2 a L2bT2 c 
But from equation (1), we have
n1u1 = n2u2
u1
 n2 = n1
u2
 M 1a L1bT1c 
 n2 = n1
 M 2 a L2bT2 c 
a b c
 M   L  T 
 n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L2   T2 
Knowing ( M 1 , L1 , T1 ) and ( M 2 , L2 , T2 ), (a, b and c) and n1 we can calculate n2, the numerical value of the
quantity in other system.
Example 1: Convert N (SI unit of force) into dynes (CGS unit of force).
Solution: newton or N is the unit of force in SI system, dimensional formula for force is  M 1 LT
1 −2
 .
 Hence, SI unit CGS unit
M 1 = 1 kg M2 = 1g
L1 = 1 m L2 = 1cm
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s
n1 = 1 n2 = ? and a = 1; b = 1; c = −2
a b c
 M   L  T 
Now, n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L2   T2 
1 1 −2
1 kg   1m  1 s 
 n2 = 1   1 cm  1 s 
 1g     
1 1 −2
1000 g  100m  1 s 
 n2 = 1     1 s 
 1 g   1 cm   
 n2 = 1 103  102  1 = 105
1 N = 105 dyne

Example 2: (kmph to ms-1); Convert km hr-1 (a unit of speed or velocity) into m s-1 (SI unit of speed or
velocity).
Solution: Dimensional formula for velocity is  M 0 LT
1 −1
 . Therefore, a = 0; b = 1; c = −1.
a b c
 M   L  T 
Now, n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L2   T2 
0 1 −1
1 kg  1 km  1 h 
 n2 = 1     1s 
1 kg   1 m   
−1
1000 m   ( 60  60 ) s 
1

 n2 = 1    
 1m   1s 
 1  5
 n2 = 1 103   =
 3600  18
5
1 kmph = m s −1
18
Example 3: The value of universal gravitational constant in CGS system is 6.67× 10-8 dyne cm2 g-2 convert
this into SI system. (CGS to SI)
CGS unit SI unit
M1 = 1 g M 2 = 1 kg
L1 = 1cm L2 = 1 m
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s
-5
Solution: 1dyne = 10 N
2 −2
−8 −2 1 cm   1 g 
−8 −5
6.67 10 dyne cm g 2
= 6.67 10 10     
 1 m  1 kg 
2 −2
 1 cm   1 g 
−8 −5
= 6.67 10 10    
100 cm  1000 g 
2 −2
= 6.67 10−8 10−5  10−2   10−3 
= 6.67 10−8 10−5 10−4 106
= 6.67 10−11 N m 2 kg −2
To Check the Dimensional Correctness of an Equation:
The dimensional formula for each term in the equation is written independently. Dimensions of each side are
then compared. If the dimensions are the same then the equation is dimensionally correct, otherwise it is
1
incorrect. For example, consider the equation for distance travelled, s = ut + at 2 .
2
The dimension of each term is written as follows,
 s  =  M 0 LT 0  ; u  =  M 0 LT
1 −1
 ; t  =  M 0 L0T 1  ;  a  =  M 0 LT
1 −2
 ; t 2  = T 2 

 s  = ut  + 
1 2
at 
2 
  M 0 LT 0  =  M 0 LT
1 −1
   M 0 L0T 1  +  M 0 LT
1 −2
  T 2 
  M 0 LT 0  =  M 0 LT 0  +  M 0 LT 0 
We find that each term on the right-hand side of this equation has the same dimensions, namely that of the
length. The dimensions of ‘s’ on the left-hand side of the equation is also that of length. Hence, this equation
is dimensionally correct.
h
Example 1: Check whether the equation in  = is dimensionally correct or not.
mv 2
Solution: h → Plank’s constant; m → mass; v → velocity;  → wavelength.

 h =  ML2T −1  ;   =  L ;  m =  M  ;
2
v 2  =  LT −1  =  L2T −2 
h
Since,  =
mv 2
 L.H .S . =    =  L 
 ML2T −1 
Now, R.H .S . = = T 
 M    L2T −2 
Since, L.H .S .  R.H .S .
 It is dimensionally incorrect.
Note: A dimensionally correct equation need not to be numerically correct. However, a numerically correct
1
equation must necessarily be dimensionally correct. For example, s = ut + at 2 is dimensionally correct, but
2
numerically incorrect. This shows that dimensions have nothing to do with magnitude.
To derive the relation among different physical quantities by the Method of Dimension
Deduce the relation among physical quantities:
The method of dimension can sometimes be used to deduce relation among the physical quantities. In order
to deduce the relation, it is necessary that the dependence of physical quantity on other quantities must be
known and dependence must be product type.
Example 2: The velocity of wave on a stretched string depends on the tension in the string and linear density
of the string. Using the method of dimensions derive the relation between them.
 Mass 
Linear density =  
 Length 
Solution: Given velocity (v) of the waves depends on the tension (T) and linear density (m).
v = kT a mb where k is a dimensionless constant

 m = 
M
 =  ML−1  ; v  =  M 0 LT
1 −1
 ; T  =  M 1LT
1 −2
 since tension is a ( kind of ) force.
 
L
 b
M a
Thus, T m  =  M LT    
a b 1 1 −2

L
 T a mb  =  M a +b La −bT −2 a 
Equating the dimensions of v and T a mb , we get
 M 0 LT
1 −1
 =  M a +b La −bT −2 a 
On comparing the exponents on either side, we get
a + b = 0  a = −b................................................ (1)
1 1
a − b = 1  −b − b = 1; b = −  a =
2 2
1 1
− T
v = kT 2 m 2  v = k
m

Example 3: The time period T of a simple pendulum is known to depends on its length ‘l’. Mass of the bob
‘m’ and acceleration due to gravity ‘g’. Arrive at the expression for the time period of pendulum in terms of
‘l’, ‘m’ and ‘g’.
Solution:
T  la 

T  mb   T  l a mb g c
T  g c 
T = k l a mb g c ........................................................................... (1)
where k is a dimensionless constant (constant of proportionality) and a, b and c are the unknown exponents.
The dimensional equation corresponding to the equation (1).
Now, T  = T  ; l a  =  La  ;  mb  =  M  =  M b  ;  g c  =  LT −2  =  LcT −2 c  , and k has no dimension.
b c

From equation (1), we get

 L.H .S . = T  =  M 0 L0T 1  
   
 c −2 c 
T  =  La    M b    LcT −2c  =  M b La +cT −2c   R.H .S . =  L    M    L T  
a b

 
 R.H .S . =  M L T 
b a + c −2 c

  M 0 L0T 1  =  M b La +cT −2 c 
By the principle of homogeneity of dimensions, the exponents of M, L and T must be equal on either side.
Therefore, on comparing the exponents of either side, we get
b = 0; a + c = 0; − 2c = 1
On solving, the numerical values of a, b and c are
1 1
a = , b = 0 and c = −
2 2
The expression for the time period of pendulum is obtained by substituting the values of a, b and c in equation
(1), we get
1 1
−
T = k l 2 m0 g 2

l
T = k
g
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
1. This method gives us no information about the dimensionless constant in the formula. e.g.: 1, 2. 3,… 𝜋
etc.
2. If a quantity depends on more than three factors, having dimensions, the formula cannot be derived.
This is because on equating the powers of M, L and T on either side of the dimensional equation we
can obtain three from which only three unknown dimensions can be calculated.
3. We cannot derive the formulae containing trigonometrical functions, exponential functions, log
functions etc, which have no dimensions.
4. The method of dimensions cannot be used to derive an exact form of relation, when it consists more
1
than one part on any side. For example, the exact form of formula s = ut + at 2 cannot be obtained.
2
5. It gives no information weather a physical quantity is a scalar or vector.