UNITS, DIMENSIONS, ERROR ANALYSIS

DEFINITION OF PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physics is the branch of science, which deals with the study of nature and properties of matter
and energy. The subject matter of physics includes heat, light, sound, electricity, magnetism
and the structure of atoms.

For designing a law of physics, a scientific method is followed which includes the verifications
with experiments. The physics, attempts are made to measure the quantities with the best
accuracy.Thus, Physics can also be defined as science of measurement.

Applied Physics is the application of the Physics to help human beings and solving their
problem, it is usually considered as a bridge or a connection between Physics & Engineering.
Physical Quantities: All quantities in terms of which laws of physics can be expressed and
which can be measured are called Physical Quantities. For example; Distance, Speed, Mass,
Force etc.

UNITS: FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

Measurement: In our daily life, we need to express and compare the magnitude of different
quantities; this can be done only by measuring them. Measurement is the comparison of an
unknown physical quantity with a known fixed physical quantity.

Unit: The known fixed physical quantity is called unit. Alternatively, the quantity used as
standard for measurement is called unit.

For example, when we say that length of the class room is 8 metre. We compare the length of
class room with standard quantity of length called metre.
Length of class room = 8 metre
Q = nu [Physical Quantity = Numerical value × unit]
Q = Physical Quantity
n = Numerical value
u = Standard unit

e.g. Mass of stool = 15 kg

Mass = Physical quantity
15 = Numerical value
Kg = Standard unit
Means mass of stool is 15 times of known quantity i.e. Kg.

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Characteristics of Standard Unit: A unit selected for measuring a physical quantity should
have the following properties
(i) It should be well defined i.e. its concept should be clear.
(ii) It should not change with change in physical conditions like temperature,
pressure, stress etc..
(iii) It should be suitable in size; neither too large nor too small.
(iv) It should not change with place or time.
(v) It should be reproducible.
(vi) It should be internationally accepted.

Classification of Units: Units can be classified into two categories: Fundamental vs. Derived

Fundamental Quantity: The quantity which is independent of other physical quantities.

In mechanics, mass, length and time are called fundamental quantities. Units of these
fundamental physical quantities are called Fundamental units.
e.g. Fundamental Physical Quantity Fundamental unit
Mass Kg, Gram, Pound
Length Metre, Centimetre, Foot
Time Second

Derived Quantity: The quantity which is derived from the fundamental quantities.
e.g. area is a derived quantity: Area = Length x Breadth
= Length x Length
= (Length)2

e.g. speed is a derived quantity: Speed = Distance / Time

= Length / Time

The units for derived quantities are called Derived Units.

SYSTEMS OF UNITS: CGS, FPS, MKS, SI

For measurement of physical quantities, the following systems are commonly used:-
(i) C.G.S system: In this system, the unit of length is centimetre, the unit of mass is
gram and the unit of time is second.
(ii) F.P.S system: In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound and
the unit of time is second.
(iii) M.K.S: In this system, the unit of length is metre, unit of mass is kg and the unit of
time is second.
(iv) S.I System: This system is an improved and extended version of M.K.S system of
units. It is called international system of unit.

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With the development of science & technology, the three fundamental quantities like
mass, length & time were not sufficient as many other quantities like electric current,
heat etc. were introduced. Therefore, more fundamental units in addition to the units of
mass, length and time are required.
Thus, MKS system was modified with addition of four other fundamental quantities and two
supplementary quantities.

Table of Fundamental Units

Sr. No. Name of Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
1 Length Metre m
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second s
4 Temperature Kelvin K
5 Electric Current Ampere A
6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
7 Quantity of Matter Mole mol

Table of Supplementary unit

Sr. No Name of Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
1 Plane angle Radian Rad
2 Solid angle Steradian sr

Advantage of S.I. system:

(i) It is coherent system of unit i.e. the derived units of a physical quantities are easily
obtained by multiplication or division of fundamental units.
(ii) It is a rational system of units i.e. it uses only one unit for one physical quantity. e.g.
It uses Joule (J) as unit for all types of energies (heat, light, mechanical).
(iii) It is metric system of units i.e. it’s multiples & submultiples can be expressed in
power of 10.

Definition of Basic and Supplementary Unit of S.I.

1. Metre (m): The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

2. Kilogram (Kg) : The kilogram is the mass of the platinum-iridium prototype which was
approved by the ConférenceGénérale des Poids et Mesures, held in Paris in 1889, and kept
by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures.

3. Second (s): The second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
Cesium133 atom.

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4. Ampere (A) : The ampere is the intensity of a constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and
placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to
2 u 107Newton per metre of length.

5. Kelvin (K): Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.

6. Candela (Cd): The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that
emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity
in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

7. Mole (mol): The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of Carbon-12.

Supplementary units:
1. Radian (rad): It is supplementary unit of plane angle. It is the plane angle subtended at
the centre of a circle by an arc of the circle equal to the radius of the circle. It is denoted
by θ.
θ = l / r; l is length of the arc and r is radius of the circle

2. Steradian (Sr): It is supplementary unit of solid angle. It is the angle subtended at the
centre of a sphere by a surface area of the sphere having magnitude equal to the square
of the radius of the sphere. It is denoted by Ω.
Ω = ∆s / r2

SOME IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS

Symbol Prefix Multiplier Symbol Prefix Multiplier
d deci 10-1 da deca 101
c centi 10-2 h hecto 102
m milli 10-3 k kilo 103
μ micro 10-6 M mega 106
n nano 10-9 G giga 109
p pico 10-12 T tera 1012
f femto 10-15 P Pecta 1015
a atto 10-18 E exa 1018

Some Important Units of Length:

1 micron = 10–6 m = 10–4 cm
1 angstrom = 1Å = 10–10 m = 10–8 cm

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 1 fermi = 1 fm = 10–15 m
1 Light year = 1 ly = 9.46 x 1015m
1 Parsec = 1pc = 3.26 light year

Some conversion factor of length:

1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 foot = 12 inch
1 mile = 1,609.34 m

Some conversion factor of mass:

1 kilogram = 2.2046 pound
1 pound = 453.6 gram
1 pound = 16 ounce
1 kilogram = 1000 gram
1 milligram = 1/1000 gram = 10-3 gram
1 centigram = 1/100 gram = 10-2 gram
1 decigram = 1/10 gram
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 metric ton = 1000 kilogram

DEFINITION OF DIMENSIONS
Dimensions: The powers, to which the fundamental units of mass, length and time written as
M, L and T are raised, which include their nature and not their magnitude.
For example Area = Length x Breadth
= [ L1] × [L1] = [L2] = [M0L2T0]

Power (0,2,0) of fundamental units are called dimensions of area in mass, length and time
respectively.
e.g. Density = mass/volume
= [M]/[L3] = [ M1L-3T0]
Power (1,-3,0) of fundamental units are called the density in mass, length and time,
respectively.

DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND SI UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Dimensional Formula: An expression along with power of mass, length & time which
indicates how physical quantity depends upon fundamental physical quantity.

e.g. Speed = Distance/Time

= [L1]/[T1] = [M0L1T-1]
It tells us that speed depends upon L & T. It does not depends upon M.

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Dimensional Equation: An equation obtained by equating the physical quantity with its
dimensional formula is called dimensional equation.

The dimensional equation of area, density & velocity are given below:

Area = [M0L2T0]

Density = [M1L-3T0]

Velocity = [M0L1T-1]

Dimensional formula SI & CGS unit of Physical Quantities

Sr. No. Physical Quantity Formula Dimensions Name of S.I unit
1 Force Mass × acceleration [M1L1T-2] Newton (N)
2 Work Force × distance [M1L2T-2] Joule (J)
3 Power Work / time [M1L2T-3] Watt (W)
4 Energy ( all form ) Stored work [M1L2T-2] Joule (J)
1 -1 -2
5 Pressure, Stress Force/area [M L T ] Nm-2
6 Momentum Mass × velocity [M1L1T-1] Kgms-1
7 Moment of force Force × distance [M1L2T-2] Nm
8 Impulse Force × time [M1L1T-1] Ns
9 Strain Change in dimension [M0L0T0] No unit
/ Original dimension
10 Modulus of elasticity Stress / Strain [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2
11 Surface energy Energy / Area [M1L0T-2] Joule/m2
12 Surface Tension Force / Length [M1L0T-2] N/m
13 Co-efficient of viscosity Force × Distance/ [M1L-1T-1] N/m2
Area × Velocity
14 Moment of inertia Mass × (radius of [M1L2T0] Kg-m2
gyration)2
15 Angular Velocity Angle / time [M0L0T-1] Rad.per sec
16 Frequency 1/Time period [M0L0T-1] Hertz
17 Area Length × Breadth [M0L2T0] Metre2
18 Volume Length × breadth × [M0L3T0] Metre3
height
19 Density Mass/ volume [M1L-3T0] Kg/m3
20 Speed or velocity Distance/ time [M0L1T-1] m/s
0 1 -2
21 Acceleration Velocity/time [M L T ] m/s2
22 Pressure Force/area [M1L-1T-2] N/m2

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Classification of Physical Quantity: Physical quantity has been classified into following four
categories on the basis of dimensional analysis.
1. Dimensional Constant: These are the physical quantities which possess dimensions and
have constant (fixed) value. e.g. Planck’s constant, gas constant, universal gravitational
constant etc.

2. Dimensional Variable: These are the physical quantities which possess dimensions and do
not have fixed value. e.g. velocity, acceleration, force etc.

3. Dimensionless Constant: These are the physical quantities which do not possess
dimensions but have constant (fixed) value. e.g. e, π, numbers like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.

4. Dimensionless Variable: These are the physical quantities which do not possess
dimensions and have variable value. e.g. angle, strain, specific gravity etc.

Example: Derive the dimensional formula of following quantity and write down their
dimensions of density, power, co-efficient of viscosity and angle.

(i) Density = mass/volume

= [M]/[L3] = [M1L-3T0]

(ii) Power = Work/Time

= Force x Distance/Time
= [M1L1T-2] x [L]/[T]
= [M1L2T-3]

(iii) Co-efficient of viscosity = Force x Distance

Area x Velocity

= Mass x Acceleration x Distance x time

length x length x Displacement

= [M] x [LT-2] x [L] [T]/[L2] x [L]

= [M1L-1T-1]

(iv) Angle = arc (length)/radius (length)

= [L]/[L]

= [M0L0T0] = no dimension (dimensionless)

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Example: Explain which of the following pair of physical quantities have the same dimension:

(i) Work & Power

Sol. Dimension of work = force x distance = [M1L2T-2]
Dimension of power = work / time = [M1L2T-3]
Work and Power have not the same dimensions.

(ii) Stress & Pressure

Sol. Dimension of stress = force / area = [M1L1T-2]/[L2] = [M1L-1T-2]
Dimension of pressure = force / area = [M1L1T-2]/[L2] = [M1L-1T-2]
Stress and pressure have the same dimension.

(iii) Momentum & Impulse

Sol. Dimension of momentum = mass x velocity= [M1L1T-1]
Dimension of impulse = force x time =[M1L1T-1]
Momentum and impulse have the same dimension.

PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSIONS

It states that the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of an equation must be the same.
According to the principle of homogeneity, the comparison, addition & subtraction of all
physical quantities is possible only if they are of the same nature i.e., they have the same
dimensions.
If the power of M, L and T on two sides of the given equation are same, then the physical
equation is correct otherwise not. Therefore, this principle is very helpful to check the
correctness of a physical equation.

Example: A physical relation must be dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., all the terms on both
sides of the equation must have the same dimensions.

In the equation: S = vt + ½ at2

The length (S) has been equated to velocity (v) & time (t), which at first seems to be
meaningless, But if this equation is dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., the dimensions of all the
terms on both sides are the same, then it has physical meaning.

Now, dimensions of various quantities in the equation are:

Distance, S = [L1]
Velocity, v = [L1T-1]
Time, t = [T1]
Acceleration, a = [L1T-2]
½ is a constant and has no dimensions.

Thus, the dimensions of the term on L.H.S. is S = [L1] and

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Dimensions of terms on R.H.S.

vt + ½ at2 = [L1T-1] [T1] + [L1T-2] [T2] = [L1] + [L1]

Here, the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the equation are the same. Therefore, the
equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS, APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS;

Dimensional Analysis: A careful examination of the dimensions of various quantities

involved in a physical relation is called dimensional analysis. The analysis of the dimensions
of a physical quantity is of great help to us in a number of ways as discussed under the uses of
dimensional equations.

Uses of dimensional equation: The principle of homogeneity & dimensional analysis has
put to the following uses:
(i) To checking the correctness of physical equation,
(ii) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another,
(iii) To derive relation among various physical quantities.

1. To check the correctness of physical relations: According to principle of Homogeneity

of dimensions a physical relation or equation is correct, if the dimensions of all the terms
on both sides of the equation are the same.If the dimensions of even one term differs from
those of others, the equation is not correct.

Example: Check the correctness of the following formulae by dimensional analysis.

(i) F = mv2/r
(ii) t = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐√𝒍𝒍/𝒈𝒈
Where all the letters have their usual meanings.

Sol. (i) F = mv2/r

Dimensions of the term on L.H.S:
Force, F = [M1L1T-2]

Dimensions of the term on R.H.S:

mv2/r = [M1][L1T-1]2 / [L]
= [M1L2T-2]/ [L]
= [M1L1T-2]
The dimensions of the term on the L.H.S are equal to the dimensions of the term on R.H.S.
Therefore, the relation is correct.

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 Sol. (ii) t = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐√𝒍𝒍/𝒈𝒈
Here, dimensions of L.H.S:
Time, t = [T1] = [M0L0T1]
Dimensions of the terms on R.H.S:
Dimensions of (length) = [L1]
Dimensions of g (acc due to gravity) = [L1T-2]
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 being constant have no dimensions.

Hence, the dimensions of terms 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅√𝒍𝒍/𝒈𝒈 on R.H.S

= (L1/ L1T-2] )1/2 = [T1] = [M0L0T1]
Thus, the dimensions of the terms on both sides of the relation are the same i.e.,
[M0L0T1].Therefore, the relation is correct.

Example: Using Principle of Homogeneity of dimensions, check the correctness of

equation, 𝒉𝒉 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 /𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
Sol. The given formula is, 𝒉𝒉 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 /𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
Dimensions of term on L.H.S:
Height (h) = [M0L1T0]
Dimensions of terms on R.H.S
T = surface tension = [M1L0T-2]
D = density = [M1L-3T0]
r = radius = [M0L1T0]
g = acc. due to gravity = [M0L1T-2]
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = [M0L0T0] = no dimensions

So,
Dimensions of 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 /𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = [M1L0T-2] x [M1L-3T0] / [M0L1T0] x [M0L1T-2]
= [M2L-5T0]
Dimensions of terms on L.H.S are not equal to dimensions on R.H.S. Hence, formula is
not correct.

2. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another.

Physical quantity can be expressed as
Q = nu
Let n1u1 represent the numerical value and unit of a physical quantity in one system and
n2u2 in the other system.
If for a physical quantity Q; [M1L1T1] be the fundamental unit in one system and
[M2L2T2] be fundamental unit of the other system and dimensions in mass, length
and time in each system can be respectively a, b, c.

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 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 = [𝑴𝑴𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 ] and 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐 = [𝑴𝑴𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 ]

as we know 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 = 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐

𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 �𝑴𝑴𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 � 𝑴𝑴𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂 𝑳𝑳𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃 𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄

𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 = = 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 = 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 �� � � � � � �
𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐 �𝑴𝑴𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 � 𝑴𝑴𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐

While applying the above relations the system of unit as first system in which numerical
value of physical quantity is given and the other as second system. Thus knowing
[M1L1T1], [M2L2T2] a, b, c and n1, we can calculate n2.

Limitations of Dimensional Equation: The method of dimensions has the following

limitations:
1. It does not help us to find the value of dimensionless constants involved in various physical
relations. The values, of such constants have to be determined by some experiments or
mathematical investigations.
2. This method fails to derive formula of a physical quantity which depends upon more than
three factors. Because only three equations are obtained by comparing the powers of M, L
and T.
3. It fails to derive relations of quantities involving exponential and trigonometric functions.
4. The method cannot be directly applied to derive relations which contain more than one
terms on one side or both sides of the equation, such as v= u + at or s = ut + ½ at2 etc.
However, such relations can be derived indirectly.
5. A dimensionally correct relation may not be true physical relation because the dimensional
equality is not sufficient for the correctness of a given physical relation.

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Significant Figure

In scientific work, all numbers are assumed to be derived from measurements and therefore
the last digit in each number is uncertain. All certain digits plus the first uncertain digit are
significant.

For example, if we measure a distance using meter scale. Least count of meter scale is 0.1 cm.
Now if we measure a length of the rod and it is between 47.6 cm and 47.7cm then we may
estimate as 47.68 cm. Now this expression has 3 significant figure 4,7,6 are precisely known
but the last digit 8 is only approximately known.

1.06.01 Common rules for counting significant figure

Rule 1: All nonzero digits are significant.

Example: x= 2365 have four significant digits

Rule 2: All the zeros between two nonzero digits are significant no matter where the

decimal point is it at all.

Example: X = 1007 has four significant digits, Whereas x = 2.0807 have five significant digit

Rule 3: If the number is less than 1 then zeros on the right of decimal point but to the left

of the first nonzero digit are not significant.

Example: X = 0.0057 has only two significant digits, but x = 1.0057 have five significant digits
according to Rule2

Rule 4: All zeros on the right of the last non-zero digit in the decimal part are significant.

Example: X = 0.00020 have two significant digits

Rule 5: All zeros on the right of non-zero digit are not significant.

Example: X = 8000 have only one significant digit while x = 32000 have only two significant
digits

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Rule 6: All zeros on the right of the last nonzero digit become significant when they come
from a measurement. Also, note that change in the units of measurement of a quantity
does not change the number of significant digits.

Example: If the measured quantity is 2030 m then the number has 4 significant digits. Same
can be converted in cm as 2.030 ×105 cm here also a number of significant digits is to be
four.

Arithmetical operations with significant figure

Addition and subtraction

In addition or subtraction, the number of decimal places in the result should the smallest
number of decimal places of terms in the operation

Example1: The sum of three measurements 2.2 m, 2.22m, 2.222m is 6.642 round off is 6.6m

Example 2: If x= 2.35 and y = 2.1 the x-y = 0.25 Round off to 0.2 ( as per roundoff rule 2)

Multiplication and division

In multiplication and division, the number of significant figure in the product or in the
quotient is the same as the smallest number of digits in any of the factor

Example 1: If x= 2.35 and y = 2.1 then xy =4.935 round off will be 4.9 as least significant
digits is 2 in 2.1

Example 2: If x = 2500 and y = 123 then x/y =20.3252 round-off 20 as 2500 have only two
significant numbers.

Errors of measurement

Measurement cannot be perfect as the errors involved in the process cannot be removed
completely. Difference between measured value and true value is called the error of
measurement. The error in measurement are classified as Systemic errors, Random errors
and Gross errors

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Systemic error

• Instrumental error: It may be due to a manufacturing defect of the instrument,

there may be zero error.
• Personal error: May be due to the inexperience of the observer. For example
improper setting of the instrument, not following proper method of taking an
observation.
• Error due to imperfection: Arises on account of ignoring the fact. For example, if
temperature should be at say 25O C while taking observation, and if temperature is
more or less than 25O C then error will happen.
• Error due to external causes: If there is sudden radiation or temperature change
which is not under your control will affect observation.

Random error

The random error is those error, during repeated observation by the same person, the cause
may be different at every time. It occurs because there are a very large number of
parameters beyond the control of the experimenter that may interfere with the results of the
experiment. A random error can also occur due to the measuring instrument and the way it
is affected by changes in the surroundings. Such error can be minimized by taking an average
of many readings. Unlike systematic errors, random errors are not predictable, which makes
them difficult to detect but easier to remove since they are statistical errors and can be
removed by statistical methods like averaging

Gross errors

These errors arise on account of the sheer carelessness of the observer. For example Reading
an instrument without setting properly. Recording the observation wrongly. Using wrong
values of the observations in the calculation.

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Absolute Error, Relative error, and Percentage error

Absolute error

Absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity is the magnitude of the difference
between the true value and the measured value of the quantity.

Let a physical quantity being measured n times. Let the measured values be a1, a2, a3, a4, ….,
an. the arithmetic mean is

𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛

𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 =
𝑛𝑛

If the true value is not known then the arithmetic mean is taken as the true value. By
definition, absolute errors in the measured values are

∆a1 = am – a1

∆a2 = am – a2

∆a3 = am – a3

-------------

∆an = am – an

The absolute error may be positive or negative.

Mean absolute error

It is the arithmetic mean of the modulus absolute error. It is represented as ∆𝑎𝑎𝑎

|∆𝑎𝑎1| + |∆𝑎𝑎2| + ⋯ + |∆𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛|

∆𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑛𝑛

Hence final result of measurement is 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 ± ∆𝑎𝑎𝑎

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Relative error

The relative error is the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity
measured

∆𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚

∆𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ×100%
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚

Combination of errors

If any experiment involves many observations and involves many mathematical operations
then errors in measurement get combined. For example, density is the ratio of mass and
volume. Here error will be in mass and length.

Errors in summation: Note error gets added.

Error in subtraction: Note error gets added.

Error in product: Note relative error gets added.

Error in division: Note relative error gets added.

Accuracy and precision

Measurement’s accuracy

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value.

Problems with accuracy are due to errors. For example, if in the lab you obtain a weight
measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then
your measurement is not accurate. In this case, your measurement is not close to the known
value.

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Precision

Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.

Using the example above, if you weigh a given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg each time,
then your measurement is very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy. You can be very
precise but inaccurate, as described above. You can also be accurate but imprecise.

Precision describes the limitation of the measuring instrument. Measurement’s precision is

determined by least count of the measuring instrument. Smaller the least count, greater is the
precision.

A good analogy for understanding accuracy and precision is to imagine a basketball player
shooting baskets. If the player shoots with accuracy, his aim will always take the ball close to
or into the basket. If the player shoots with precision, his aim will always take the ball to the
same location which may or may not be close to the basket. A good player will be both accurate
and precise by shooting the ball the same way each time and each time making it in the basket.

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