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 3 2 1 0 –1
10 10 10 10 10

5 6 7 8 . 9
3 2 1 0 –1
In power of 10 5  10 6  10 7  10 8  10 9  10
MSD LSD

1101.101

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 3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3 –4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

MSB LSB

Binary
point

3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

N = 1 1 0 1 . 1 0 1
3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3
12 12 02 12 12 02 12
3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3
N = 12 + 12 + 02 + 12 + 12 + 02 + 12 = (13.625)10

2 1 0 –1 –2
8 8 8 8 8
N = 4 7 5 . 2 5
2 1 0 –1 –2
48 78 58 28 58
2 1 0 –1 –2
N = 48 + 78 + 58 + 28 +58 = (317.328125)10

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 2 1 0 –1 –2
16 16 16 16 16
N = 3 F D . 8 4
2 1 0 –1 –2
3  16 F  16 D  16 8  16 4  16
2 1 0 –1 –2
N = 3  16 + F  16 + D  16 + 8  16 + 4  16
2 1 0 –1 –2
= 3  16 + 15  16 + 13  16 + 8  16 + 4  16 = (1021.515625)10

b31 b30 b29 b28 b27 b26 b25 b24 b23 b22 b21 b20 b19 b18 b17 b16 b15 b14 b13 b12 b11 b10 b9 b8 b7 b 6 b 5 b 4 b3 b2 b 1 b 0 Bit

Nibble 7 Nibble 6 Nibble 5 Nibble 4 Nibble 3 Nibble 2 Nibble 1 Nibble 0

Byte 3 Byte 2 Byte 1 Byte 0

Word 1 Word 0

Double word

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     

(1111 1111 1111) 2 (4095) 10 (FFF) H

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 Step 1. 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Binary (Base 2)

Step 2. 2 5 5 3 4 Octal (Base 8)

Adding 0 to make Adding 0s to make

a group of 3-bits a group of 3-bits

 (10101101.0111) 2 (255.34) 8

1 2 5 6 2 Octal (Base 8)

Step 1. 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

Step 2. 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

Leading zeros Trailing zero

 (125.62) 8 (1010101.11001) 2

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 1101101110  1001101

Step 1. 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

Step 2. 3 6 E 9 A

Adding 0s to make Adding 0 to make

a group of 4-bits a group of 4-bits

(
1101101110.1001101) 2 (36E.9A) 16

(549. B4)16

5 4 9 B 4

Step 1. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

Step 2. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

Trailing zeros

 (8A9. B4) 16 (101 0100 1001.101101) 2

(615.25)8

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 6 1 5 2 5 Octal (Base 8)

Step 1. 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Binary (Base 2)

Step 2. 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Binary (Base 2)

Step 3. 1 8 D 5 4 Hex (Base 16)

Adding 0s to make Adding 0s to make

a group of 4-bits a group of 4-bits

BC66. AF)16

B C 6 6 A F Hex (Base 16)

Step 1. 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 Binary (Base 2)

Step 2. 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 Binary (Base 2)

Step 3. 1 3 6 1 4 6 5 3 6 Octal (Base 8)

Adding 0s to make Adding 0 to make

a group of 3-bits a group of 3-bits

A n  1 r n  1  A n  2 r n  2  ...  A 1 r 1  A 0 r 0  A 1 r  1  A  2 r  2  ... C  m r  m

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             

(193) x
(193) x

   
 (193) x 1 x2 + 9 x + 3 x0
 x2 + 9x + 3 



Q R Q R
 LSD
12 2 = 6 0 2 12 0 LSD

6  2 = 3 0 2 6 0

3  2 = 1 1 2 3 1

 1 2 1 1 MSD
1 2 = 0
0
MSD 1 1 0 0
(12)10 = (1 1 0 0) 2

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 Fraction Base Product
0 MSD
0.125  2 = 0 . 25

0
0.25  2 0 . 50

1 LSD
0.50  2 1 . 00

(0.125)10 = (0.001)2 (12.125)10 = (1100.001) 2

Q R Q R
 LSD
658 8 = 82 2 8 658 2 LSD

82  8 = 10 2 8 82 2

10  8 = 1 2 8 10 2

 1 8 1 1 MSD
1 8 = 0
0
MSD 1 2 2 2
(658)10 = (1222) 8

Fraction Base Product

6 MSD
0.825 × 8 = 6 . 6

4
0.6 × 8 = 4 . 8

6 LSD
0.8 × 8 = 6 . 4

(0.825)10 = (0.646) 8  (658.825)10 = (1222.646) 8

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 Q R Q R
LSD
5386  16 = 336 10 10(A) LSD
16 5386

336  16 = 21 0 16 336 0

21  16 = 1 5 16 21 5

 1 16 1 1 MSD
1 16 = 0
0
MSD 1 5 0 A
(5386)10 = (150A) 16

Fraction Base Product

5 MSD
0.345 × 16 = 5 . 52

8
0.52 × 16 = 8 . 32

5 LSD
0.32 × 16 = 5 . 12

(0.345)10 = (0.585) 16  (5386.345)10 = (150A.585) 16

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  b1

(292)10  (1204)b (16)10  (100)b

1  b 3  2  b2  0  b1  4  b0

b 3  2 b2  4

1  b2  0  b1  0  b0 b2

                      

32  8  4  1  0.5  0.25  0.0625

0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 . 1 1 0 1 Binary number
2 D . D Hex number

 (101101.1101) 2 (45.8125) 10


(65.342)8  (1144 .3042)7

(153.513)10
(231.4065)8

(1010.10)16  (?)2  (?)2  (?)10

(1000000010000.0001)2 , (10020.02)8 , (4112.0625)10

(1947)10 (79B)16 = (3633)8

(11010100)2

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 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Number

NOT operation

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1's complement of number

(11000100)2

1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Number

1 1 Carry
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1's complement of number
+ 1 Add 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 2's complement of number

+ 200 = 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

– 200 = 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1's complement

+ 1 Add 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 2's complement

B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0

Sign Magnitude

Maximum positive number : 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = +127

Maximum negative number : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = –127

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 1 0 1 0 0

Sign Magnitude

Cout

(11001100)2 (11011010)2

1 1 1 1 Carry
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Number 1
+ 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 Number 2
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 Result (S)

(28)10 (15)10
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 (28) 10 (011100) 2 (15) 10 (01111) 2

1 1 1 Carry (28)10
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 Binary equivalent of (28)10 + (15)
Sign Extension + 10
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Binary equivalent of (15)10
Sign (43)10
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 Result : Binary equivalent of (43)10

(11101100)2  (00110010)2

10
0 0 10 0 10
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 Number 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 Number 2
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 Result

Note : (10)2 – (1)2 = (1)2

(11010) 2  (10000) 2

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 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1's complement of 10000
1 1 1 1 Carry
1 1 0 1 0
+ 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 1
+ 1 Add end-around carry
0 1 0 1 0

(15)10  (28)10
(15) 10 (01111) 2
(28) 10 (11100) 2
1 1 1 0 0 Binary equivalent of (28)10

0 0 0 1 1 1's complement of (28)10

1 1 1 1 Carry
(15)10
0 1 1 1 1 Binary equivalent of (15)10 +
+ (–28)10
0 0 0 1 1 1's complement of (28)10
1 0 0 1 0 Result = Binary equivalent of (–13)10 (–13)10

Verification 0 1 1 0 1 1's complement of result (Binary equivalent of (13)10)

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 6810 = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 Carry
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1's complement
+ 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 2's complement

1 1 1 Carry
0 1 0 1 0 1 0
+ 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Number
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1's complement
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2's complement
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 = 2610






(101.11)2 (110.01)2

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 1 0 1 1 1 Multiplicand = (5.75)10
 1 1 0 0 1 Multiplier = (6.25)10
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 Shift left by 1 position
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Shift left by 2 positions Partial
Shift left by 3 positions product
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Shift left by 4 positions
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Final product = (35.9375)10

Fractional digits in the final product = Fractional digits in multiplicand + Fractional

digits in multiplier = 2 + 2 = 4

 (101.11) 2  (110.01) 2 (100011.1111) 2

1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
– 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0
– 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 1

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 Codes

Weighted Non-weighted Reflective Sequential Alphanumeric Error detecting

codes codes codes codes codes and correcting
codes

• Excess - 3 • 2421 • 8421 • ASCII • Parity

• Gray • 5211 • Excess - 3 • EBCDIC • Hamming
Binary BCD • Five - bit • Excess - 3 • Hollerith
BCD codes
• 8421
• 2421
• 3321
• 4221
• 5211
• 5311
• 5421
• 6311
• 7421
• 74 2 1
• 84 2 1

Decimal number 9 3 9 3

Positional 8 +4+2 +1 8 +4+2 +1 5 +4+2 +1 5 +4+2 +1

weights
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

8421 code 5421 code

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 Positional 2 +4+2 +1 2 +4+2 +1
weights
Code for 9 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 Code for 5
Complement
Code for 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Code for 4

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 Decimal 5 8
8-4-2-1 BCD 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 1 Carry

6 0 1 1 0 BCD for 6 5 0 1 0 1 BCD for 5

+ +
3 0 0 1 1 BCD for 3 2 0 0 1 0 BCD for 2
9 0 1 0 0 1 BCD for 9 7 0 0 1 1 1 BCD for 7
Carry Carry
Valid BCD numbers

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 6 0 1 1 0 BCD for 6
+
8 1 0 0 0 BCD for 3
14 0 1 1 1 0 Invalid BCD number (1 1 1 0 ) > 9
Carry

6 0 1 1 0 BCD for 6
+
8 1 0 0 0 BCD for 8
14 1 1 Carry
1 1 1 0 Invalid BCD number
+ 0 1 1 0 Add 6 for correction
Carry 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 BCD for 14
1 4 Decimal

8 1 Carry
+
9 1 0 0 0 BCD for 8
17 1 0 0 1 BCD for 9
1 0 0 0 1
Carry Incorrect BCD result
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1

8 1 0 0 0 BCD for 8
+9 1 0 0 1 BCD for 9
17 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Incorrect BCD result
+
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Add 6 for correction
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 BCD for 17
1 7

(137)10

 (137) 10 (0001 0011 0111) NBCD

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 

a) 24 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
+ 18 + 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
42 1 1 1 Carry
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 Invalid BCD number 1 1 0 0 > 9
+ 0 1 1 0 Add 6 for correction
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
+ 1 Propagate carry to next higher digit
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 BCD for 42
4 2

1 1
b) 48 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
+ 58 + 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
106 1 Carry
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Propagate carry and
Add 6 for correction
+ 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 > 9 so add 6 for correction
1 1 1 Carry
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
+
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Corrected sum
1 0 6

(3497)BCD

9 9 9 9
–
3 4 9 7 (3497)BCD
6 5 0 2 9’s complement of (3497)BCD

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 (46)10  (22)10

1 1 1 Carry
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 (46) BCD
+ 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 (77) 9's complement of (22) BCD
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 Invalid BCD numbers
+ 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Add 6 in each digit
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
+ 1 Add end around carry
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
2 4 Result

 (46) BCD  (22) BCD (24) BCD

(24)10  (56)10

Carry
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 (24) BCD
+ 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 9's complement of (56) BCD
Carry 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 (67) BCD

  (  32) 10

(3497)BCD

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 9 9 9 9
–
3 4 9 7 (3497)BCD
6 5 0 2 9’s complement of (3497)BCD
+ 1 Add 1
6 5 0 3 10's complement of (3497)BCD

(46)10  (22)10

1 Carry
46 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 (46)BCD
+ +
–22 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 (78)10's complement of (22)BCD
24 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 Carry
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 Invalid BCD numbers
+ 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Add 6 in each digit
Discard carry 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
2 4 Result

 (46) BCD  (22) BCD (24) BCD

(24)10  (56)10

1 Carry
24 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 (24)BCD
– 56 + 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 10's complement of (56)BCD
– 32 Carry 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 (68)BCD

 (24) 10  (56) 10  (32) 10

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 1 1 1 Carry
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 (18) BCD
+ 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 (75) BCD
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
+ 0 1 1 0 1101 > 9 so add 6
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
+ 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Final carry is 0, so result
is negative and it is in 9's
complement form
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 Carry
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 (18) BCD
+ 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 (76) BCD
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
+ 0 1 1 0 1110 > 9 so add 6
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
+ 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 Final carry is 0, so result
is negative and it is in 10's
complement form
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

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 Decimal Complement relation Decimal

0 0 0 0
0
1 1 1 1 9

0 0 0 1
1
1 1 1 0 8

0 0 1 0
2
1 1 0 1 7

0 0 1 1
3
1 1 0 0 6

0 1 0 0
4
1 0 1 1 5

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 (7)10

(7)10 = 3 +3+2 +1 (7)10 = 4 +2+2 +1

1 1 0 1 = ( 1 1 0 1)3321 BCD 1 0 1 1 = ( 1 0 1 1)4221 BCD

(7)10 = 5 +2+1 +1 (7)10 = 5 +3+1 +1

1 1 0 0 = (1 1 0 0)5211 BCD 1 0 1 1 = (1 0 1 1)5311 BCD

(7)10 = 5 +4+2 +1 (7)10 = 6 +3+1 +1

1 0 1 0 = (1 0 1 0)5421 BCD 1 0 0 1 = (1 0 0 1)6311 BCD

7 4 2 1

(7)10 = 7 +4+2 +1 (7)10 = 7 +4– 2 – 1

1 0 0 0 = (1 0 0 0)7421 BCD 1 0 0 0 = (1 0 0 0)74 21 BCD

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 59210 = 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
Complement of
9’s complement of 59210 = 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 each other

40310 = 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Complement of
each other
9’s complement of 40310 = 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1




a) 8 + 6 1 1 1 Carry b) 1 + 2 Carry
1
1 0 1 1 Excess-3 for 8 0 1 0 0 Excess-3 for 1
+ 1 0 0 1 Excess-3 for 6 + 0 1 0 1 Excess-3 for 2
1 0 1 0 0 Carry = 1, hence Carry 0 Carry = 0, hence
1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Add 3 – 0 0 1 1 Sub 3
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Excess-3 for 14 0 1 1 0 Excess-3 for 3
1 4 Result in decimal 3 Result in decimal

( 0 0 1 1) 2

1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 Excess-3 for 8
+
0 1 1 1 Complement of 5 in excess-3
1 0 0 0 Excess-3 for 5
Carry 1 0 0 1 0 +
0 1 0 0 Complement of 8 in excess-3
0 0 1 1 Add 3 Carry 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 – 0 0 1 1 Subtract 3
1 Add end-around carry
1 0 0 1 Excess-3 for – 3
0 1 1 0 Excess-3 for 3
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 

1 1 Carry
a) 16 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 Excess-3 for 16
+
+ 29 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Excess-3 for 29
45 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 Propagate carry
1 1 1 Carry
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
+ 0 0 1 1 Add 3 to correct 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
–
0 0 1 1 Subtract 3 to correct 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 Excess-3 for 45
4 5 Result

1 1 1 1 Carry
b) 21 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Excess-3 for 21
– 12 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 Complement of 12 in excess-3
9 Carry 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
+ 0 0 1 1 – 0 0 1 1 Add 3 and subtract 3
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
+ 1 Add end-around carry
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 9 Excess-3 for 9

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 Decimal Gray code
code
0 0000

1 0001

2 0011

3 0010

4 0110

5 0111

6 0101

7 0100

8 1100

9 1101
10 1111
11 1110
12 1010
13 1011
14 1001
2n  1
1
1000
2n  1

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 Rotating
disk

Shaft

3-bit code to represent

the shaft position

Brush
(a) Shaft position encoder

Rotating disk
101

1
0

111

10
11

0
1

10
11

100 Brush 3 110 Brush 3

Brush 2 Brush 2
Brush 1 Brush 1

01 01
1 000 0 000

Indicates 1
010

011
001

001

Indicates 0

(b) Binary code (c) Gray code

MSB LSB(G0)
Gray code : 1 0 1 0 1 1
+ + + + +
Binary code : 1 1 0 0 1 0
(B0)

 (1 0 1 0 1 1) gray (1 1 0 0 1 0) 2

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 B n (MSB) G n (MSB) B2 B3  G2

Bn  1 Bn  G n  1 B1 B2  G 1

Bn  2 Bn  1  G n  2 B0 B1  G 0

MSB LSB(B0)
Binary code : 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 1

Gray code : 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
(G0)

 (1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1) 2 (1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0) gray

G n (MSB) B n (MSB) G2 B 3  B2

Gn 1 Bn  Bn  1 G1 B2  B1

Gn 2 Bn  1  Bn  2 G0 B1  B0

Binary code : 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0

Gray code : 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

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 

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