Chapter 6: Motivation Concepts

One defines motivation as a reason for engaging in a particular behavior towards attaining a goal. It relates to 3 key concepts: direction,
intensity and persistence of human behavior. Intensity=how much one tries, direction= it leads to the desired outcome, persistence=how
long one tries.

Early theories of motivation

Hierarchy of needs – Maslow pyramid

1st level -> Psychological – hunger, thirst, shelter, sex

2nd level -> Safety – security, protection

3rd level -> Social – friendship, belonging

4th level -> Esteem – respect, status, recognition

5th level -> Self-actualization – self- fulfilment

Lower order needs (psychological, safety) must be first satisfied so high-order needs (the rest) can be attained. One cannot move from
satisfying psychological needs directly to social, because safety needs were not satisfied. Higher-order needs are often satisfied internally
(within the person), lower-order needs are satisfied externally (pay, tenure) Later, Maslow’s theory of needs was elaborated to ERG
theory. This theory proposes only 3 core needs – existence, relatedness and growth.

Theories X (negative) and Y (positive)

This theory is based on manager’s assumptions of their employees. Theory X is full of assumptions such as: employees are lazy, dislike
their work, everything is somebody’s fault, employees’ interest in job is restricted to just being paid, employee cannot be trusted. Theory
Y is based on assumptions such as: employees may be ambitious, motivated, can handle work autonomy, can be given authority and be
empowered. In terms of Maslow hierarchy, higher-order needs dominate individuals in theory Y, lower-needs dominate in theory X.

Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory)

Theory developed by F. Herzberg. His studies proved that certain factors cause job satisfaction and a separate set of factors cause job
dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors are: status, job security, salary, fringe benefits – if these factors are present, a worker won’t be
dissatisfied. If they are absent, workers will be dissatisfied. There are as well motivation factors: challenging work, recognition,
responsibility, and empowerment. These factors give positive satisfaction. Despite many criticisms, this theory is widely known by
managers.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

It focuses on 3 needs: need for achievement (nAch), need for power (nPow) and need for affiliation (nAff). These needs are subconscious.
Researches focus mainly on nAch and the relationship between nAch and job performance. Critique: the theory has less practical
approach than others and applying and measuring concept in practice is expensive and time-consuming.

Contemporary theories of motivation

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Theory which addresses the effects of social contexts on intrinsic motivation. It states that if we think we will be able to complete the task,
we will be intrinsically motivated to complete the task, requiring no further external motivation. And if we are extrinsically awarded for
behavior which was previously intrinsically rewarding, then the general motivation level drops. Examples of extrinsic rewards: bonus,
salary, verbal praise. Why does it happen?

1. When we are losing control over something, our (previous) intrinsic motivation lowers.

2. Absence of extrinsic reward changes one’s reasons to work (example: mother asks you to clean your room – your behavior is influenced
by an external factor, but with a course of time you begin to like your room looking clean and neat and you do cleaning without your
mother’s requests, just because you are internally motivated, the cause of cleaning a room changes).

Critique: criticizing methodology and outcomes analysis. The effect of verbal and intangible award is different on intrinsic behavior of an
individual. A recent modernized version of the theory is called self-concordance theory – it is degree to which a person’s motives for
pursuing a goal are consistent with the person’s interests and core values (page 219, Organisational Behavior). If one is working to
achieve intrinsic goal, it is more probably he will succeed and if he does not succeed he is still happy. On the other hand, if a person works
to achieve extrinsic goals (e.g. money), then it is less probable he will succeed. Studies suggest that people whose work goals are
connected with intrinsic motives achieve higher job satisfaction, perform better and there is a person-organisation fit.

Goal-setting Theory

This theory claims that providing specific, challenging and interesting goals, while giving constant feedback, results in better outcome.
Acceptance of a goal, however hard it can be to achieve, results in higher effort to achieve it.

Why are we ‘attracted’ to difficult goals?

1. Because a difficult goal focuses us, makes us concentrate on it and diminishes distractions.

2. A difficult goal makes us more energetic and more hard- working because indeed we need to work better, harder to accomplish it.
3. Difficult goal equals more determination in pursuing it.

4. Difficult goal equals invention, finding new working methods to be more effective and efficient. In this whole process, feedback serves
as guidance, check list of things that are done and need to be done.

Self-generated feedback is more effective than externally- generated feedback. There are also other factors that influence goal-setting
effect: a) Goal commitment b) Task characteristic c) National culture. One can implement a programme called management by objectives
(MBO) – setting SMART goals (specific, measurable, actionable, realistic and tangible). Elements of MBO: goal specificity, participation in
decision making process, time period and feedback. MBO is similar to the goal-setting theory, only differ in participative goal-setting vs.
manager assigned goals. MBO may not work due to unrealistic expectation, lack of commitment or the inability/unwillingness to reward
according to goal accomplishment.

Self-efficacy Theory

Developed by Albert Bandura. It is based on one’s confidence that he/she can perform/achieve a goal. The higher one’s belief in
succeeding (that is the higher one’s self-efficacy), the higher one’s motivation and response to feedback. There are four methods of
enhancing self-efficacy: enactive mastery-relevant experience with the task/job, vicarious modeling- gaining confidence by watching
others performing the task, verbal persuasion-someone persuades you that you can succeed, and the enhancement of positive emotional
responses by the reduction of stress reactions (arousal). Training programs use enactive mastery. The Galatea effect means
communicating expectations directly to employees and self-fulfilling of this expectation.

Reinforcement Theory

It is opposite to goal setting theory, indicating that behaviors are environmentally caused. Not a motivation theory, but widely considered
when discussing about motivation.

Equity Theory

This theory argues that employees compare their efforts and their outcomes with those of other employees, in case of inequities they act.
There are four ways one can compare his inputs and outputs with those of co- worker: self-inside, self-outside, other-inside, other-outside.
The moderating variables of comparison are gender, length of tenure, level in the organization and amount of education/professionalism.
Same gender prefers references from the same gender. If one spots inequity, he can make the following decisions:

 Change the input

 Change the output
 Choose a different referent
 Distort perception of self
 Distort perception of others
 Leave the field (e.g. leave the job)

Equity was perceived from the employee’s standpoint in the past (distributive justice), but now is
increasingly perceived from the organisation’s standpoint (organisational justice).

Expectancy Theory

Developed by Victor Vroom. Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is
to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work
harder then this will be better. Focuses on 3 relationships:

 Effort-performance relationship (“The harder I try, the better outcome will be”)
 Performance-reward relationship (“The more TVs I sell, the higher bonus I will get”)
 Reward-personal goal relationship (“The higher bonus I get, the better car I will buy”)

Challenge: To combine these theories and understand the relations between them (Figure 6.10, page 161). Also, cultural differences
must be considered.