Management Concepts & Organization Behavior

Unit-4

Dr. Anurag Joshi

 Motivation
• Motivation is a process accounts for an intensity,
direction and persistence of efforts towards attaining a
goal.
• Intensity describes how hard a person tries.
• High intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job-
performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled
in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore,
we consider the quality of effort as well as its intensity.
• Persistence measures how long a person can maintain
effort.
Maslow theory of Hierarchy Needs
 Theories of Motivation (Maslow)
Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders.
Physiological and safety needs, where the theory says people start,
were lower-order needs ,and social, esteem, and self-actualization
were higher-order needs .
1. Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily
needs.
2. Safety. Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social. Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
4. Esteem. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and
attention.
5. Self-actualization. Drive to become what we are capable of
becoming ; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-
fulfillment.
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
• Theory X , managers believe employees inherently dislike work and
must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it. Under
• Theory Y , managers assume employees can view work as being as
natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to
accept, and even seek, responsibility.
• Theory X -The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike
responsibility, and must be coerced to perform
• Theory Y -The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek
responsibility, and can exercise self direction.
• To understand more fully, think in terms of Maslow’s hierarchy. Theory Y
assumes higher-order needs dominate individuals.
• McGregor himself believed Theory Y assumptions were more valid than
Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such ideas as participative decision
making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations to
maximize an employee’s job motivation.
 Two Factor Theory-(Frederick Herzberg)
• Two-factor theory —also called motivation-hygiene theory.
• Intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and
achievement seem related to job satisfaction.
• Respondents who felt good about their work tended to attribute these
factors to themselves, while dissatisfied respondents tended to cite
extrinsic factors, such as supervision, pay, company policies, and
working conditions.
• To Hertzberg, the data suggest that the opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. Removing dissatisfying
characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying.
• Exhibit 7-3 , Herzberg proposed a dual continuum: The opposite of
“satisfaction is “no satisfaction,” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction”
is “no dissatisfaction.”
 Two Factor Theory-(Frederick Herzberg)
• According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct
from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate
factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace, but not necessarily
motivation.
• They will be placating rather than motivating their workers. As a result, Herzberg
characterized conditions such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical
working conditions, relationships with others, and job security as hygiene factors .
adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. If we want to
motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested emphasizing factors associated with the
work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional opportunities,
personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. These are the
characteristics people find intrinsically rewarding.
• two-factor theory A theory that relates
• intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Also
called motivation hygiene theory.
• hygiene factors Factors such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary
—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When these factors are adequate, people
will not be dissatisfied.
Two Factor Theory-Herzberg
 Mcleland Theory
• Mclelland’s theory of needs was developed by
David McClelland and his associates. 13 It looks at
three needs:
• Need for achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel,
to achieve in relationship to a set of standards.
• Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others
behave in a way they would not have otherwise.
• Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly
and close interpersonal
 Modern Theories
• Self-determination theory , which proposes
that people prefer to feel they have control
over their actions, so anything that makes a
previously enjoyed task feel more like an
obligation than a freely chosen activity will
undermine motivation
• A theory of motivation that is concerned with
the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation
and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory A version of self-
determination theory which holds that allocating
extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been
previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease
the overall level of motivation if the rewards are
seen as controlling.
• Self-Concordance The degree to which peoples’
reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their
interests and core values
• Job Engagement The investment of an employee’s
physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job
performance.
Job Engagement
 Goal Setting Theory
• A theory that says-that specific and difficult goals, with
feedback, lead to higher performance.
• Specific goals produce a higher level of output than the
generalized goal. “do your best.” Why? Specificity itself seems
to act as an internal stimulus.
• If factors such as acceptance of the goals are held constant, the
more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance.
• Of course, it’s logical to assume easier goals are more likely to
be accepted. But once a hard task is accepted, we can expect
the employee to exert a high level of effort to try to achieve it.
• But why are people motivated by difficult goals? First,
challenging goals get our attention and thus tend to help us
focus. Second, difficult goals energize us because we have to
work harder to attain them.
Management By Objectives
 Self Efficacy Theory-(Social
Cognitive/learning theory)
• Management by Objectives (MBO) A program that
encompasses specific goals, participative set, for an explicit
time period, with feedback on goal progress.
• Self-Efficacy An individual’s belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task.
• Albert Bandura, proposes four ways self-efficacy can be
increased:
1. Enactive mastery.
2. Vicarious modeling.
3. Verbal persuasion.
4. Arousal.
• The most important source of increasing self-efficacy is enactive
mastery —that is, gaining relevant experience with the task or
job. If you’ve been able to do the job successfully in the past,
you’re more confident you’ll be able to do it in the future.
• The second source is vicarious modeling —becoming more
confident because you see someone else doing the task. If your
friend slims down, it increases your confidence that you can lose
weight, too. Vicarious modeling is most effective when you see
yourself as similar to the person you are observing.
• The third source is verbal persuasion: becoming more confident
because someone convinces you that you have the skills
necessary to be successful.
• Finally, that arousal increases self-efficacy. Arousal leads to an
energized state, so the person gets “psyched up” and performs
better. But if the task requires a steady, lower-key perspective
(say, carefully editing a manuscript), arousal may in fact hurt
performance.
 Reinforcement Theory
• Operant Conditioning Theory, probably the most relevant
component of reinforcement theory for management, argues
that people learn to behave to get something they want or to
avoid something they don’t want.
• creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of
behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior.
• He demonstrated that people will most likely engage in
desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing
so; that rewards are most effective if they immediately follow
the desired response; and that behavior that is not
rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.
 Social Learning Theory
• The view that we can learn through both observation and direct
experience.
1. Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they
recognize and pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be most
influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to
us, or similar to us in our estimation.
2. Retention processes. A model’s influence depends on how well the
individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer
readily available.
3. Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behavior by
observing the model, watching must be converted to doing. This process
demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities.
4. Reinforcement processes. Individuals are motivated to exhibit the
modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Positively
reinforced behaviors are given more attention, learned better, and
performed more often.
Equity Theory says that individuals compare their job inputs
and outcomes with those of others and then respond to
eliminate any inequities.
1. Self–inside. An employee’s experiences in a
different position inside the employee’s current
organization.
2. Self–outside. An employee’s experiences in a
situation or position outside the employee’s current
organization.
3. Other–inside. Another individual or group of
individuals inside the employee’s organization.
4. Other–outside. Another individual or group of
individuals outside the employee’s organization.
 Expectancy Theory
• A theory that says that the strength of a tendency to act in a
certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that
the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
• Effort–performance relationship. if I give a maximum effort,
will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
• Performance–reward relationship. if I get a good
performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational
rewards?
• Rewards–personal goals relationship. if I’m rewarded, are
the rewards attractive to me?
Perception