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PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

This extensive survey project is conducted to acquire a practical knowledge and application of
theory and overcome the difficulties that would arise in field during surveying. We also learn
the use of different survey instruments and to develop the team spirit at work. it also helps to
develop the condense in handling of survey project. We conducted surveys for

NEW TANK PROJECT

WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY PROJECT

HIGHWAY PROJECT

RESTORATION OF EXISTING TANK

LAYOUT PLANNING

OBJECTIVES OF EXTENSIVE SURVEY CAMP

In order to acquire a good knowledge of both theory and in practical way and to gain confidence
to solve the difficulties that could arise during surveying.

OBJECTS OF THIS SURVEY PROJECTKARE AS FOLLOWS

1. To impart training in the use of survey instruments and to acquire a comprehensive idea of
the project.

2. To train the students under difficult and realistic situation of the surveying project.

3. To develop team spirit in a practical work.

4. To impart confidence in the management of the survey project.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF A PROJECT

The design and construction of any project such as dam, road alignment requires a thorough
investigation of the site as regards to its stability and feasibility. The preliminary investigation
starts from the reconnaissance work, study of top sheets, proposal of alternate sites etc.

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The second stage of work of investigation includes the survey work at the site in order to collect
the data necessary for the design of project elements, preparation of drawings, estimates etc.
the office work is confined to the designs, drawings and estimates of the project.

LEVELLING
Leveling is a method of surveying used for the determination of the difference of
elevations or levels of various points on the surface of the earth. Leveling deals with distances
in a vertical plane.

Leveling is an important method of surveying used for many engineering works and
construction projects. It is required to determine the undulations of the earth’s surface for
topographic mapping. It is needed for the design of highways, railways, canals, sewers etc.
Leveling is essential for the layout of construction projects, for locating the excavation levels
in buildings, bridges, dams etc. The drainage characteristics of an area can be obtained by
leveling. The results of the leveling can be used to determine the catchment area, volume of
the reservoir and the area submerged by a reservoir. The results of leveling can also be used to
determine the volume of earthwork for roads, railways and canals. Leveling is required in
almost all engineering works of importance in one form or the other.

The most commonly used methods of leveling for the survey work are described below.

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

Differential leveling is the method of leveling which requires more than one setting of the level
instrument. The method is used when the two points, whose difference of elevation is required,
are situated quite apart or when their difference of elevations is large. Differential leveling is
also called as compound leveling. In this method, a number of settings of the instrument are
done one after the other, and the process is continued till the last point is sighted.

Differential leveling is used in practice for profile leveling, cross-sectioning,

contouring, etc. In profile leveling, the differential leveling is done along a line. Cross-
sectioning is required to determine the levels across the line along which profile leveling is

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done. In contouring, the levels are determined at various points and the contours, which are the
curves joining the points of equal elevations, are drawn.

PROFILE LEVELING

Profile leveling is the process of leveling along a fixed line to determine the elevations
of the ground surface along that line. The fixed line is generally the center line of a highway,
railway, canal, sewer or any other such utility. The fixed line need not be a single straight line.
It may consist of different straight reaches connected by curves. Profile leveling is also known
as longitudinal sectioning.

The ground profile is the section of the ground obtained when a vertical plane cuts the
ground surface. The ground profile shows the elevations of the ground along that section. The
profile leveling is done to determine the undulations of the ground surface. The ground profiles
are used for the study of the relationship between the existing ground levels and the levels of
the proposed route. The gradient line is drawn and the formation levels at various points are
determined and the amount of cutting and filling can be computed.
Field Procedure

Profile leveling is nothing but differential leveling done along a line. Profile leveling is
commenced from a bench mark and should end at a bench mark, as far as possible.

Let AB be the fixed line along which profile leveling is to be done. Let BM-1 and BM-
2 be the two bench marks. Intermediate points a, b, c, etc. are first marked on the line AB at
some suitable interval, usually 20 m. The positions of these intermediate points are located by
chaining along the line AB and noting the distances from the starting station A. When the
ground surface does not have much undulation, the intermediate points are fixed at a uniform
interval. However, if the ground surface is irregular and there are abrupt changes in the ground
surface, the interval may be non-uniform. The interval is reduced in the reaches where there
are abrupt changes.

The instrument is set up on a firm ground at some suitable place (say) L1 so as to

command a large number of points on the line. A back sight is taken on BM1 to determine the

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height of instrument at L1. The staff is then kept successively at stations A, a, b, c and d and
the intermediate sights are taken to determine the levels of these points. It becomes necessary
to shift the instrument if the intermediate sight exceeds 100 m or so, when further points
become invisible owing to large undulations in the ground.

A suitable turning point is selected on a firm ground or on a permanent object and a

foresight is taken. The instrument is then shifted and set up at point L2 so that it commands
forward points. A back sight is taken on the turning point and the height of the instrument at
L2 is determined. The intermediate sights are taken at points e, f, g, h and B. Finally, a foresight
is taken at BM2 to check the levels.

Sectional Elevation, plan.

Field notes of profile leveling are recorded in the standard level book. The height of
instrument method is used for the reduction of levels. Since the number of intermediate sights
is more, the height of instrument method is more convenient.

CROSS SECTIONING

Cross sections are run at right angles to the fixed line along which the profile leveling
is done. These sections are taken on either side of the fixed line to obtain the lateral outline of
the ground surface. They provide the data for estimating quantities of earthwork and for other
purposes.

The cross-sections are numbered consecutively from the commencement of the

centerline and are set out at right angles to the main line of section with the help of chain/ tape,
the cross-staff or the optical square and the distances are measured on the left and right from
the center peg. The levels of each cross-section point are determined.

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BLOCK LEVELING
This method is employed in places where the ground profile over a certain area is
required. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of squares of size varying from 2 m
to 20 m, thus forming a grid or block. The level is set up in the middle of the area at a
commanding position. The height of the instrument is determined by taking a back sight on the
Benchmark and then intermediate sights are taken on each of the grid points.

From the elevations of the grid points, the points on the various contours are located by
interpolation. Block leveling is essential in places where a high degree of accuracy in terms of
the ground profile is required and where costly structures have to be constructed.

This method was used at the locations of waste weirs and cross-drainage works.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PLACE

The famous Sri. GHATI SUBRANIANYA TEMPLE is located at S.S GHATI {MELINA

JOGANAHALLI) at a limit of Honnenahalli of Doddaballapura taluk, Bangalore

district. It is 60 km away from Bangalore with good transportation facilities from all round the
corners of the state.

The temple comes under the jurisdiction of Muzrai of Revenue department

(DHARMIKA DATTI ILAKHE). The temple is an ancient one, which is believed to be 85

years old. The famous cart festival including cattle fair is also held every year.

STUDY OF TOPO SHEET

This sheet gives the topographical features of the locality like the alignment of a railway line,
roadway, streams and its distributaries and permanent structures located in that locality. This
map helps in selecting the site for a NEW TANK and also gives clear picture of transportation
to be proposed area in proposed site for the transportation of men and material for the
construction. From this we can know the approximate catchment area of the site. This map has
to be studied before reconnaissance survey.

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INTRODUCTION FOR IRRIGATION

Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to soil for rising crops.
India is basically an agricultural country and its economy depends to a great extent on the
agricultural output. Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life. Water is normally
supplied to the plants by nature through rains.

However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient or ill timed. In order
to get the maximum yield, it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to
maintain correct timing of watering. This is possible only through a systematic irrigation
system that is collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop
as and when required.

THE NEED FOR IRRIGATION CAN BE SUMMARIZED IN THE FOLLOWING

FOUR POINTS.

LESS RAINFALLS: -
When the total rainfall is less than that needed for the crop, artificial supply of water is
necessary. In such a case, irrigation system should be developed at the place where more water
is available and then, the means to convey water where there is deficiency.

NON-UNIFORM RAINFALL: -
The rainfall in a particular area may not be uniform throughout the crop period. During the
early periods of the crop, rains may be sufficient for the growth of the crop but during the late
end stages of crop there may be no sufficient water to feed the crop. But the accumulated or
stored water during excess rainfall period may be supplied to the crop during the period when
rainfall is not sufficient to feed the crop, lacking of rainwater.

COMMERCIAL CROP WITH ADDITIONAL WATER: -

The rainfall in a particular area may be just sufficient to raise the crops, but more water may
be necessary for raising commercial or cash crops, in addition to increasing in annual output
by adopting multiple cropping patterns distributed throughout the year.

CONTROLLED WATER SUPPLY: -

By constructing a proper distribution system, the yield of crop may be increased.
Application of water to the soil by modern methods of irrigation serves the following purpose:
* It adds water to the soil to supply moisture essential for the plant growth.
* It washes out all diluted salts in the soil.

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* It reduces the hazard of soil piping.

So for the above purposes there is a scope for study of storage of water on ground surface. So
large amount of water can be stored and used by construction of dams and other structures.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION

Duty: -
Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It is the relation between the
area of a crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water required during the entire period of
growth of that crop.
For example, if 3cumecs of water supply is required for a crop sown in an area of 5100
hectares, the duty of irrigation water will be 5100/3 = 1700 hectares/cumec, and the discharge
of 3 cumecs will be required throughout the base period.

Delta: -
Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period from the
day of sowing to harvesting.
For example, if a crop requires about 12 watering at an interval of 10 days and a water
depth of 10 cm in every watering then the delta for that crop will be 12×10 = 120 cm = 1.2 m.
If the area under that crop is A hectares, the total quantity will be 1.2 × A = 1.2A hectare-
meters in a period of 120 days.
Crop period: -
Crop period is the time, in days, that a crop takes from the instant of its sowing to its
harvesting.

Base period: -
Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time of first
watering for sowing the crop, to the last watering before harvesting.
The duty of water is reckoned in the following four ways:

• By the number of hectares that 1 cumec of water can irrigate during the base period,
i.e., 1700 hectares per cumecs.
• By total depth of water, i.e., 1.20 meters.
• By number of hectares that can be irrigated by a million cubic meter of stored water.
• By the number of hectare meters expended per hectare irrigated. This is also used in
tank irrigation.

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Relation between duty(D),delta(Δ) and base period,(B) in metric system
Let there be a crop of base period b days.
Let one cumec of water be applied to this crop on the field for B days. Now, the volume of
water applied to this crop during B days (V)
V = (1x60x60x24) m3
= 86,400 (m3)
By definition of duty (D), one cubic meter supplied for B days matures D
hectares of land.
Therefore, this quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D
square meters of area.
Total depth of water applied on this land
= Volume/Area
= 86,400 B/104 D meters
= 8.64 B/D meters
By definition, this total depth of water is called delta (D).
Therefore,
D = 8.64 B/D meters
OR
D = 864 B/D cm.
where, D is in cm or m, B in days, and D is duty in hectares/cumec.

Consumptive use: -

Consumptive use of water by a crop is the depth of water by a crop consumed by

evaporation & transpiration during the crop growth, including water consumed by
accompanying weed growth.

Gross commanded area:

An area is usually divided into a number of watersheds and drainage valleys. The canal
usually runs on the watershed and water can flow from it, on both sides, due to gravitational
action only up-to drainage boundaries. Thus, in a particular area lying under the canal system,
the irrigation can be done only up-to the drainage boundaries, which can be commanded or
irrigated by a canal system. The gross commanded area is thus the total area lying between
drainage boundaries, which can be commanded or irrigated by a canal system

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Cultivable commanded area:

The gross commanded area also contains unfertile barren land, alkaline soil, local ponds,
villages and other areas as habitation. These areas are known as uncultivable areas. The
remaining area on which crops grown satisfactorily is known as cultivable commanded area.
The cultivable commanded area can be further classified as cultivable cultivated area and
cultivable uncultivated area.

AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

Objectives:

In view of acquiring a sound knowledge of both theory and practical situations and also
difficulties that would be encountered during field survey work, an extensive survey project
camp is usually arranged for civil engineering students.

With this motive survey camp was arranged with the help of our lecturers at S.S GHATI
from 27/01/2020 to 05 /02/2020. We were able to finish the survey works under lectures and
the knowledge gained by us in our course of study.

Following are the technical aims and abilities:

a) To imparts training in the use of surveying instruments and to acquire comprehensive

idea of the project, along with design and estimations.
b) To train the students in real and difficult situation of project surveying.
c) To develop team spirit in practical situation/
d) To impart and develop the self confidence in the management of project survey.

AIM OF THE PROJECT:

• To establish the bench mark, reduce level at the project site.

• To fix the centre line of the tank bund.
• To conduct a longitudinal section and cross section surveys along the centre line of
tank bund.
• To conduct capacity contour survey on the upstream side of the tank bund
• To conduct canal survey at downstream side of the tank bund
• To conduct block levels surveys at waste weir and sluice gate
• To calculate the volume of earthwork quantity for constructing tank bund and canal.

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VARIOUS SURVEYS CONDUCTED
The various surveys conducted for new tank project is:
1. Map study
2. Reconnaissance
3. Preliminary survey
4. Final location and detailed surveys.

1. Map study: If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely
routes of the road. In India, topographic maps are available from the “Survey of
India”.
2. Reconnaissance: A reconnaissance is a rapid but through examination of an area between
the termini of the project.
3. Preliminary survey: A preliminary survey is detailed survey of a strip of territory through
which a proposed line is expected to run.
4. Final and detailed survey: The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary
survey is to be first located on the field by establishing the centreline. Next
detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information.

For detailed survey:

• Longitudinal section and cross-section of the proposed tank bund.
• Capacity of contour surveys.
• Canal survey
i. Initial survey
ii. Final survey
• Cross-section of the canal.

General considerations for selecting bund site:

• The valley should be narrow which can reduce the cost of construction of bund but it
should be open at upstream to get maximum catchment area
• Foundation soil should be strong enough to sustain hydraulic structure. Permeability of
base soil should be as minimum as possible
• Either side hillocks should act as natural abutments of bund
• Water needs to be tested for its quality and feasibility for potability, agricultural and
industrial purposes

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FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR SELECTION OF SITE FOR EARTHEN DAM.

The following topography and geological features affect the selection of site for earthen dam.

1. The water storage should be largest for the minimum possible height and length. The
site should be located in a narrow valley.
2. Good impervious strata [foundation] should be available at moderate depth.
3. Good and suitable basin should be available.
4. Material for construction should be available locally.
5. There should be suitable site available for waste weir.
6. Value of the property and land likely to be submerged by the proposed dam should be
sufficiently low in comparison with the benefit expected from the project.
7. Dam should be accessible in all season.
8. Overall cost of construction and maintenance is to be taken into consideration.

INVESTIGATION FOR A NEW TANK PROJECT

The design and construction of any dam whether earthen masonry or concrete has to be
preceded by a thorough investigation to select the most suitable and economical site. The
thoroughness of the investigation depends upon the size of the project.

lt is proposed to construct an earthen bund to store water for irrigation purpose.

The following works are required to be to envisage the project.

* Reconnaissance survey

* Preliminary investigation

* Detailed survey

RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

Reconnaissance survey comprises of:

1. Locating possible sites for construction of bund with the aid of TOPO sheet

2. Visiting the sites for the preliminary investigation

3. Finalization of the site for the construction

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PRELIMINARY lNVESTlGATlON

Preliminary investigation includes the following:

1. Rough levelling work along the valley to obtain the topography of the valley.

2. Availability of construction materials, transportation, and equipment’s required for

investigation, local labour etc.

3. A study of the foundation strata with few trial bondages along the proposed alignment.

4. Collection of hydrological data such as annual rainfall in the catchment area and flood
discharge at the site.

5. A natural facility for discharging the flood water through a waste weir.

6. Assessment benefit from the project that would reach the people after construction of the
dam.

7. Submergence of the important occupational feature under water such as lands, highways,
rails, temples, bridges, cultivated land etc. after the completion of the project.

Hence a general map showing the elevation of the water courses, canal routes, dams and
important occupational features such as vegetation, cultivation lands, roads and other rail-roads
has to be prepared.

SURVEYS TO BE CONDUCTED

* LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTION ALONG THE CENTRE LINE OF THE

MAIN BUND

* CAPACITY CONTOURING

*BLOCK LEVELLING AT WASTE WEIR AND TANK SLUICE SITE

* CANAL ALIGNMENT

The following points are to be considered while arranging the network of the survey.

1. Length and height of the bund should be minimized.

2. There should be natural foundation diversion canal to Carry the surplus water

3. The length and height of the waste weir shall be economical.

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4. Good foundation soil shall be available for the earthen bund as well as waste weir and tank
sluice. A

5. Nearby availability of Construction materials and its transportation.

6. The cost of the protective works shall be minimum.

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTION ALONG THE CENTRE LINE OF THE

BUND

OBJECT:

To conduct longitudinal and cross section of survey along the centre line of the bund and to
estimate the quantity of different materials required for the bund.

lNSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

1. Prismatic compass with Tripod stand

2. Ranging rods

3. Wooden pegs, plumb bob

4. Arrows

5. Dumpy level with Tripod stand

6. Levelling staff

7. Chain, tape

8. Flags

PROCEDURE:

1. A temporary bench mark (B.M) is established by carrying out fly levels from the permanent
bench mark.

2. Starting from the temporary bench mark the reduced level of the lowest level of the valley
is determined by carrying fly levels.

3. From this point, staff readings are taken along the centre line of the bund (called longitudinal
section readings) at 10m interval preferably at lower interval in steep ground.

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4. Cross section levels are taken at every 30m chainages, on either side of the centre line of the
bund. The intervals along the transverse line being 5m for a length of 30m on both upstream
and downstream side and at lower portion of the valley it may be increased at 45m.

5. The process is continued and RL of flag P and Q on either side of the Centre line are
determined.

DRAWINGS REQUIRED:

1. L/S of the profile of earthen bund to a suitable scale.

2. C/S at various chainages showing the profile of the bund, MWL, FTL and

DEAD STORAGE LEVEL etc., to a suitable scale. ,

BLOCK LEVELLING AT WASTE WEIR SITE:

OBJECT:

To understand the topographic feature at the waste weir and to estimate the quantity of different
materials required for construction.

INSTRUMENTS USED:

1. Dumpy level with Tripod stand

2. Levelling staff

3. Chain, Tape and Arrows

4. Ranging rods

FIELD WORK:

The following works to be carried out in the survey

1. The direction of the centre line of the waste weir is fixed with reference to the centre line of
the main bund.

2. Blocks of 5m, square are formed for a length of 20m along the centre line of bund 15m
upstream and 15m downstream side of the centre line of bund.

3. The levelling is carried out to establish the reduced levels of the corners of the square block.

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CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY

OBJECTIVE:

The objective of the survey is to draw the capacity contour map of the catchment and to
estimate the quantity of water that can be stored.

Following four aspects are to be considered while fixing the capacity of the reservoir

* The catchment at the site proposed receives rain to cater the demand and if the proposed site
can hold the required quantity of water then required height of the bund can be constructed.

* The catchment at the site proposed receives sufficient rain to cater the demand and if the
proposed site cannot hold the required quantity of water then required height of bund shall be
restricted to site coition.

* The catchment at the site proposed receives less rain which cannot enter the demand and any
height of the bund can be constructed, then the height of bund is fixed to store maximum water.

* The catchment at the site proposed receives less rain which cannot cater the demand and the
height of the bund is also restricted because of site condition, then the height is fixed taking
site condition

ln all the above cases it is necessary to compute the yield of the catchment.

PROCEDURE FOR CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY

INSTRUMENTS USED:

1. Levelling staff

2. Level with stand

3. Plane table with Accessories

4. Chain and tape

5. Ranging rods

6. Arrows

PROCEDURE:

1. Carry the fly levels from the nearest temporary bench mark (B.M) until the height of
instrument obtained is greater than the required contour to be plotted

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For example suppose the contour is 90.00m is to be plotted say, the height of instrument
obtained should be more than 90.00m Say 90.50m the required staff reading is (H.I - Contour
Level)

= 91.5 - 88.0 = 2.50m

2. The centre line of the bund (PQ) is located on the plane table by the method of intersection.
The plane table is to be shifted on to the centre line of the bund at station say 'S' (Contour R.L
90.00m whose position has been located by levelling. The level and the plane table are placed
as close as possible.

3. The required staff reading 2.500m, is searched on the ground. The staff man moves in the
direction indicated by the person at the levelling instrument, once the staff reading is bisected,
a ray is drawn on the plane table by bisecting the staff and the distance is plotted on the sheet
by drawing an arc from the previous station in the plane table with necessary distance to scale.

4. The distance obtained are plotted to a scale of lcm = 10m. The contour points must be located
at closer intervals to get a perfect clear contour.

5. Details regarding type of land (cultivable barren, rocky) through which the contour passes,
the road and other details of the topography should also be marked / plotted on the drawing
sheet during the plotting work.

6. ln order to get a good spread of the contour the plane table and instrument should be shifted
a number of times depending upon the topography of the area and each time required new staff
reading for the particular height of instruments and R.L of the contour has to be calculated.

DRAWINGS REQUIRED:

Contour plan showing the details of topography etc.., with centre line of bund and waste weir
to a suitable scale.

IMPORTANT LEVELS OF THE PROJECT:

The following are the important levels that are fixed after a thorough study of the profile of the
longitudinal sectioning of the proposed site and the capacity contour map.

* TOP BUND LEVEL

* MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL

* FULL TANK LEVEL

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* SILL LEVEL OF WASTE WEIR

* SILL LEVEL OF THE TANK SLUICE

BOOKING THE STAFF READING IN THE LEVEL BOOK

1. The reading should be entered in the respective columns and in order of their
observation.
2. The first enter on the page is always a back sight and the last one always a fore sight.
3. In carrying the readings from one page to the next, if the last entry happens to be an
IS, it is entered in both IS and FS column and in the BS and is columns against it should
be repeated on the next page.
4. The FS and BS of the change point should be written in the same horizontal line
5. The RL and PC should be written in the same horizontal line opposite the BS
6. BM change point and other important points should be brief, but accurately explained
in the remarks columns.

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION

Before taking up a detailed survey of project, it is essential to carry out considerable

reconnaissance work. The topo sheet study of the probable project area gives possible sites in
that area and the catchment area of the site. This reconnaissance survey was carried out by us
the day before we started the actual survey. During this survey, we decided the site for the
construction of bund, weir & canal alignment. Using chain or tape rough data regarding the
level and the length of the dam are collected. The preliminary investigation should include.

1. A rough leveling work to give the topography of the site.

2. A study of the rocky out crop and a few boring is done to note the nature of the
foundation.
3. Availability of construction materials such as Earth and good quarry etc.
4. Nature and extent of land, roads, bridges, etc. that would be submerged by the
construction of the dam.
5. Benefit the dam would give to the people.
6. Collection of hydrological data like rainfall, floods discharge etc.
7. Facility for discharging the floodwater.

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Keeping the above points in view, a thorough study was done were to final choice of
the site was made.

Earth dams are classified into following.

1. Homogenous earth dam - constructed using single type of earth.

2. Modified Homogenous dam - constructed using a single type of earth provided with a high
permeability layer (filter) at the base.
3. Zoned dams - Dams constructed using more than one type of earth. An "inner portion of
dam"
constructed of "Clayey soil" core or Hearting. An "outer portion of dam" adjoining inner
portion of dam made of well graded gravelly or sandy material (Ref Sketch no.2) called casing
material. The Guide line for selection of the slope for the casing is as follows

Though any one of the tables can be used for preliminary selection of the bund section
the current practice has been in favour of Strange's table.
Core (Hearting): Core or Hearting is clay type of material provided mainly to prevent seepage
through the body of the dam. The different types of clay silt for suitability of construction or
core is provided in Table no.1 under the heading "Rolled Earth Dams."

Rip Rap or u/s Revetment is coarse material placed on the embankment to prevent erosion of
soil is termed "Rip Rap"
Rip Rap is of two types
1. Dumped
2. Placed (also called "Pitching")
The minimum weight of earth rock for rip rap is calculated by using Iribarren - Hudson
formula.

Rock toe / toe drain

The toe drain is placed at D/s side toe of each dam. In small dams only drains are provided.
In large dams embankment will be saturated below the phreatic line. And toe drain acts as a
disposal zone of the drainage water. Its height varies from 5% of dam height 9 above tail water
level), with external drainage system, to as much on 20% in small dams with no internal drains.
The Rock toe designed like protective filter except for the gravel zone. The top width of rock
toe will have the dimension same as of berm.

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PROJECT
CANAL ALIGNMENT

OBJECTIVE:

It is proposed to align a canal for irrigation of paddy, sugar cane, grains, vegetables etc.
The following points are kept in mind while aligning the canal.
* As for as possible, curves should be avoided in the alignment of canal because the curves
lead to disturbance of flow and a tendency to slit on the inner bend and scour the toe of the
outer (concave) bend.

* The alignment should be such that the cutting and filling of earth or rock should be balanced,
as far as possible.

* Number of cross drainage works shall be minimum. Surveying for canal are conducted:
1. To finalize the alignment of the canal and to determine the length and alignment of canal.

2. To estimate the cost of the canal works.

3. To know the number and nature of cross drainage works encountered in the alignment and
to estimate the cost of cross drainage works.
4. To find the location and extent of irrigable lands.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

1. Levelling staff
2. Chain, Tape and Arrows

3. Plain table with its accessories

4. Ranging rods

5. Wooden pegs, plumb bob

6. Level with stand
The proposed canal is a contour canal in a falling gradient of 1:1000 i.e.., 100cm fall/ km. the
sill level of the sluice is to be fixed, which the starting point of the canal is. Let the sill level be
801.500m. The staff reading at a distance of 30m should be increased by = £55 X 30 = 0.03m.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Fly levels are carried from the known R.L until the R.L of starting point is obtained on the
centre line of the bund at station, say station 'T'

2. The position of the centre line of the bund PQ and starting point of the channel 'T' is plotted
on the plane table sheet by the method of intersection.

3. Set up the level at a commanding position and find the height of instrument by taking back
sight (B S) on station point 'T'

4. The plane table is centered over the station 'T' and oriented by back to the previous station.
5. The required fall in gradient is 0.03m. For every 30m. The required staff reading to obtain
this falling gradient
6. With the zero end of the tape held at station 'T' swing an arc at a distance of 30 metres. Move
the staff along the length of the arc till 1.280m staff reading is obtained. Drive the peg to
indicate the falling contour point.

7. A ranging rod is held in a first point, the surveyor at the plane table bisects the point and a
ray is drawn in that direction and the distance between station 'T' and first point is drawn to a
suitable scale.
8. Pegs are driven every 30m intervals along the L/S of the canal and cross section are taken at
every 60m interval to a distance of 12m on either side at an interval of 4m.
9. The plane table work should have the check point, around features such as villages, stream
(mother valley), hills, cultivated land, barren land etc.., on either side of the canal alignment.

1O.The above steps are to be repeated.

NOTE:
* The staff reading calculated is not constant and changes for every shift of the dumpy level.
The new staff reading is calculated for fall of 0.03m, for every 30m distance.

° The depth of cut should me minimum.

* A straight canal is preferred and curves are avoided as far as possible and if inevitable, the
radius of curve must be larger than 50 times bed width of the canal.
* There should be few cross drainage works.

* Block levels are to be taken whenever the canal crosses across the natural drainage.

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SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT

DETAILS OF SITE
Place of project : S.S.GHATI
Distance from Bangalore : 60km North
Nature of the project : New Dam Project
Type of dam : Earthen dam with hearting

DETAILS OF STORAGE RESERVOIR

Catchment area of dam : 5 acres
Area irrigated : 1800 hectares
Proposed crop pattern : sugarcane, maize, vegetables, fruits
Average annual rainfall : 80 cm

DETAILS OF DAM
Type of dam - (zoned embankment) impervious core
Length of dam - 325.6 m
Top level of dam(TBL) - 810.000 m
Maximum water level (MVL) - 809.000m
Full tank Level(FTL) - 808.500m
Dead storage level (DSL) - 802.500m
Sluice level - 802.500m
Top width of dam - 3m
Upstream slope - 1.5:1
Downstream slope - 2:1
U/S pitching - 50 cm thick stone revetment
7.

DETAILS OF WASTE WEIR

Type - Stepped apron weir
Crest level -
Depth of spillage -
Waste weir length -
Top width of weir -
Bottom width of weir -

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DETAILS OF MAIN CANAL

Channel off taking RL -
Gradient provided - 1in20
Bottom width of channel - 1m
Depth of water -
Side slope - 1.5:1
Free board - 0.45
Type of sluice - Tank Sluice
Canal length surveyed - 150m

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DESIGN OF BUND

The available volume of water by Rain in the catchment area is to be stored on the river basin
in the upstream side. The volume of water that can be stored at different level is determined
only after tracing the capacity contour keep in view of yearly yield of water and the freeboard
for the required height of dam is fixed.
T.B.L 810.000m
M.W.L 809.000m

HEIGHT OF THE BUND

H = Highest RL – Lowest RL
= 810.000-800.493
= 9.507m
Maximum depth of water stored, H = 9.507 m
Height of free board required, = 0.25 x √ (H+0.58)
= 0.25 x √ (9.507+0.58)
= 0.794m
Provide a height of 1.0 m at free board,
T.B.L = M.W.L + Freeboard
= 809.00 + 1.0
= 810.000 m

TOP WIDTH: -
The top width of the earthen dam can be determined as per the following recommendations
A=(0.25*H)+3 For very low height dams
A=(0.55H)^0.5+(0.2H) For less than 30m height
A=1.65(H+1.5)^1/3 For more than 30m height

Where H is the height of the dam

As the height of the Dam (H= 9.507m) is less than 15m, the bund has to be
designed as a small dam.

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SIDE SLOPE: -

Sl.No Type of material U/S slope D/S slope

1. Homogeneous well graded 2.5:1 2:1

2. Homogeneous coarse silt 3.0:1 2.5:1

Homogeneous silt clay

2.5:1 2.0:1
3. • Ht. less than 15m
• Ht. more than 15m
3:1 2.5:1
a) Sand/Gravel with central
4. 3.0:1 2.5:1
clay core

Adopting side slopes for homogeneous well graded material from the above table
U/S = 2.5:1 and D/S = 2:1

FREE BOARD:

AS PER STRANGE’S RECOMMENDATIONS

Maximum free Top width
Sl.N Height of the dam board in In
o. (m) (m)
(m)
1. Up to 4.5 1.2 – 1.5 1.85
2. 4.5 to 7.5 1.5 – 1.8 1.85
3. 7.5 – 15 1.85 -
4. 15 to 22.5 2.1 3.0

AREA CALCULATION AND VOLUME OF WATER REQUIRED FOR

CANAL:

Note: Based on the irrigation and the geographical features of the area it was
evident that the area is best suitable for cultivation of rice, wheat and vegetables.

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CROP PATTERN AND ITS DETAILS

Base period, B Delta, Δ Duty, D
Crop
(days) (cm) (ha/cumec)
Kharif:
Rice 120 120 864
Maize 135 65 1794.46
Rabi:
Vegetables 90 45 1728
Wheat 180 84 1829.6
Therefore, the discharge required and the volumes of water required are:

CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE

BASE
DELTA
PERI DISCHARGE VOL.
AREA, DUTY,D ∆=(8.64XB
CROPS O Q=A/D V=Ax∆
A(hect) (ha/cumc) )D
D,B(da (cumec) (ha-mt)
(mt)
y s)
KHARIF
RICE 1.2 120 864 1.2 1.44x10-3 1.44
MAIZE 1.0 135 1794.46 0.65 6.5x10-4 0.65
RABI
VEGETABLE 0.4 90 1728 0.45 1.8x10-4 0.18
WHEET 1.0 180 1829.6 0.84 8.4x10-4 0.84

Q (Kharif) = 2.09x10-3cumec
Q (Rabi) = 10.2x10-4cumec
Capacity of reservoir = 34670 m3
Assuming 10% evaporation loss = 3467m3
Total discharge through canal = 31203m3
The discharge obtained from above calculations is less for design.
Therefore the discharge is assumed to be 1 cumec i.e.,Q = 1 cumec.

DESIGN OF WASTE WIER

It is proposed to provide waste weir with stepped apron

Calculations of flood discharge:
The maximum flood discharge may be estimated by Ryve’s formula.

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Area of Catchment Area = 5 acres

TBL = 810.000 m
MWL = 809.000 m
FSL = 808.500m
Height or Depth = 9.507 m
Head = MWL – FSL = 0.5m
Ryve’s co efficient for catchment C1 = 9.0
Slope at upstream U/s = 2.5H:1V
Slope at downstream D/s = 2H:1V

Peak Discharge,
Qpeak = CA(2/3)
= 9 x (5)(2/3)
Qpeak = 26.3161cumec
Difference between MWL & FSL i.e., Maximum Head is
assumed as Head = MWL – FSL = 0.5 m

Length of surplus weir :

Q =2/3 * Cd * (sqrt) 2g *L * h^(3/2)
L = 15m
Size of dam stone =0.15* 0.15* 1.5
Number of dam stones = L - 1 =15 -1 = 14
Length of dam stones = 14 * 0.15 = 2.1m
Overall length of dam stone = 2.1+15 = 17.1m.
h =1m
H= Highest RL - Hard strata =810.00-800.493= 9.51 m
Top width = 0.55*(sqrt (9.51)) +( sqrt (1))
= 3m
Bottom width = 2
Top width = 6m
Bed concrete = 0.6m depth
and 6 m wide

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DESIGN FOR TANK SLUICE: -

Design discharge, Q= 1m3/sec

Slope of barrel is 1:2000
Let velocity, V= 2m/sec
We know, Q= A x V
1= A x2
A = 0.5m2
But, A=bxd
0.5 = 2d x d (since b=2d)
D = 0.50 m.
b = 2 x 0.5 =1.0m
Hence, provide a rectangular sluice of 1m x 0.5m.

DESIGN OF SLUICE BARREL:

Width of sluice barrel, = 0.6m

Depth of sluice barrel, = 0.75m
Thickness of side walls @ top = 0.45m & at bottom = 1m
Bed concrete, = 0.6m
Wearing coat, = 0.1m

Top level of sluice = 89.880+ 0.75 +0.15

= 91.230 m

DESIGN OF CANAl :-
.CANAL ALIGNMENT:

Canals are provided both at right and left bank.

From the sluice canal take off from RL 89.880 m having a bed slope of 1 in 2000. The length
of right bank canals is 130m.AndFrom the weir canal takes off from RL 97.800 m having a bed
slope of 1 in 2000. The length of right bank canals is 250 m.

DATA REQUIRED FOR CANAL DESIGN: -

Design discharge, = 1.0 cumec
Canal bed slope, = 1 in 2000
Manning’s roughness coefficient (n) = 0.0225 and m = 1

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DESIGN:

Assuming D = 1.50 m
Vo= 0.55mD^0.64
= 0.713m/sec
Assuming side slope of canal as 0.5 H: 1V
Now, A= Q/V= 1/0.713= 1.403m2
A = (B+0.5D) DB = 0.185m

Perimeter P = B+√5D = 0.185+√ (5)1.50 = 3.540m

R = A/P = 1.403/3.540=0.396 m
Velocity,

= 0.727m/sec

Hence, CVR = m = Vo/V = 0.713/0.727= 0.980

V = V0
0.73 = 0.73
But for this depth we get B = 0.185m which is much smaller practically. Therefore for
practical purpose we adopt the bed width of canal as B= 0.5m.
Therefore, Bed width = 0.5 m,
Depth = 1.50 m
Slope = 0.5H: 1V.

1.50 m

0.5 M
Actual discharge, Q = AV = 1.875 x 0.73 = 1.370m3/s
Therefore, Provide a Canal with base width as 0 .50 m & depth of 1.50m

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PROJECT

CAPACITY CONTOURING:-
Objectives : To determine the capacity of the reservoir
Methods used : Block contouring
Capacity of reservoir is calculated using trapezoidal or prismoidal formula.

Top level of bund : 810.000 m

Bed level of bund : 800.493m
Maximum water level (M.W.L.) : 809.000 m
Full supply level (F.S.L.) : 808.500 m
Top width of bund :3m
Height of the bund : 9.507 m
Free board : 1.0m
Slopes: - Upstream slope : 2.5H: 1V
Downstream slope : 2 H: 1V

RESERVOIR CAPACITY

Contour R L Area in mt² Avg area in Contour Volume in mt³

mt² interval mtrs
802.50 3237.02 - - -
803.6 7669.5 5453.24 1.1 5998.56
804.5 17294.1 12481.8 0.9 11233.62
Total=17232.18

TOTAL STORAGE:

UPTO T.B.L: -
• By Trapezoidal formula =[(A1+An)+2(A2+ .. +An-1)]

• By Simpson’s ⅓ rd formula =[A 1 +An+4(A even)+2(A odd)]

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PROJECT

EARTHWORK CALCULATION
Slope 0 0

Formation width=b 3 m
u/s side slope 1 in 1.5 1.5 0.666666667
d/s side slope 1 in 2 2 0.5 m
chainage 10 m

Total
Area=(dm*b)
+Area of 1st Length
Area of triangle+Area between Quantity of
RL of the leangth of Area of 1st Central 2nd of 2nd each filling in
Chainage ground bund FL of bund "d"=FL-RL "dm" triangle area = dm*b triangles triangles chainage (m3)
0.000 810.000 0.000 810.000 0.000 - - - - - - -
1.000 809.335 10.000 810.000 0.665 0.332 0.037 0.997 0.028 1.025 10.000 10.251
2.000 805.585 20.000 810.000 4.415 2.540 2.151 7.620 1.613 9.233 10.000 92.329
3.000 804.120 30.000 810.000 5.880 5.147 8.832 15.442 6.624 22.067 10.000 220.667
4.000 806.010 40.000 810.000 3.990 4.935 8.118 14.805 6.089 20.894 10.000 208.936
5.000 804.975 50.000 810.000 5.025 4.508 6.773 13.523 5.079 18.602 10.000 186.019
6.000 804.145 60.000 810.000 5.855 5.440 9.865 16.320 7.398 23.718 10.000 237.184
7.000 804.880 70.000 810.000 5.120 5.488 10.038 16.463 7.528 23.991 10.000 239.907
8.000 803.728 80.000 810.000 6.272 5.696 10.815 17.088 8.111 25.199 10.000 251.991
9.000 802.788 90.000 810.000 7.212 6.742 15.152 20.226 11.364 31.590 10.000 315.896
10.000 802.238 100.000 810.000 7.762 7.487 18.685 22.461 14.014 36.475 10.000 364.748
11.000 801.393 110.000 810.000 8.607 8.184 22.329 24.553 16.747 41.300 10.000 413.000
12.000 801.078 120.000 810.000 8.922 8.765 25.605 26.294 19.204 45.498 10.000 454.976
13.000 801.618 130.000 810.000 8.382 8.652 24.952 25.956 18.714 44.670 10.000 446.703

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14.000 800.788 140.000 810.000 9.212 8.797 25.796 26.391 19.347 45.738 10.000 457.378
15.000 800.493 150.000 810.000 9.507 9.359 29.200 28.078 21.900 49.979 10.000 499.786
16.000 804.935 160.000 810.000 5.065 7.286 17.695 21.858 13.271 35.129 10.000 351.294
17.000 806.018 170.000 810.000 3.982 4.524 6.821 13.571 5.116 18.686 10.000 186.860
18.000 809.693 180.000 810.000 0.307 2.144 1.533 6.433 1.150 7.583 10.000 75.832
Total
Area = 5013.757203

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CONCLUSION:-
1. Total length of the bund is 180m in which quantity of
earthwork in filling is 5013.75m³.
2. The total capacity of water storage is 17232.18 m3
3. In this tank bund it is provided with a waste weir of length 6 m
R.L). From this a 200m canal is aligned towards d/s side.
4. Also at lowest R.L (802.5 m) a rectangular sluice is provided. From which
a 150m canal aligned.
5. From this new tank project storage of the water is achieved and by this
the area which is situated at d/ s side is protected by submergence.
6. The stored water may utilize for the irrigation or for the other
purposes such as drinking and other domestic uses for the
nearby villages.

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PROJECT

WATER SUPPLY

& SANITATION PROJECT

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INTRODUCTION

Safe drinking water is the primary need for every human being. Water is absolutely essential
not only for survival of human being but also animals, plants and all living beings.
The purpose of municipal water supply system is to provide portable water, which is
chemically, and bacterial safe for human consumption. For domestic use water should be free
from unpleasant taste, odour and should be improved for human health.
While designing a water supply scheme it is first of all, essential to search a source for
village, for which the scheme is to be designed. There are two main water sources, i.e.,
• Surface water sources: River, Lakes, Ponds, Impounding Reservoir, Canals,
Stored Rain water, etc.
• Ground water sources: Springs, Wells, Infiltration Galleries and Infiltration
wells. Surface water sources are generally contaminated and cannot be used
without proper treatment and purification system, Compared to Ground water
source.

PROJECT SITE
In our project work, it is proposed to conduct the survey project camp at S S GHATI,
Karnataka.

MAIN OBJECTIVE
The Main objective of this project is to provide pure and safe drinking water supply with
proper sewerage system to the proposed village.

SELECTION OF PROJECT SITE

Before commencement of the survey work we have made reconnaissance survey to locate
the site for intake works, water treatment plant, overhead tank, rising main, gravity main
and distribution system for the proposed village.
Detailed survey work is made for the entire project work and is given below
1. Block levels for the proposed Intake works (Reservoir Intake Works)
2. Compass survey work is made from intake works to the Proposed Water Treatment
plant (L/S).
3. Block levels for the proposed Water Treatment Plant.
4. Rising main (L/S) to Overhead Tank using compass.
5. Block levelling for proposed Overhead Tank on the hill station.
6. Gravity main (L/S) using compass up to the proposed village.
7. Block levelling for Water Distribution system to the proposed village. Using the
data available through survey work, we have designed Water Supply system.
The design work for the entire project is made as:
Intake works, Water Treatment Plant, Rising Main, Over Head Tank, distribution system.
All the drawings connected to the above two stages are given in detail, in a separate
bounded report.

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WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

After the selection of site for the proposed village, detailed survey work has been carried
out. Using survey data, based on the prepared layout for the proposed village and the
number of occupants in village, we have made the following designs.

AVERAGE DOMESTIC WATER CONSUMPTION

Whenever an engineer is given a duty to design a water supply scheme for a particular area
of the community, it becomes imperative upon him, to first of all, evaluate the amount of
water available and the amount of water demanded by the public. The first duty is to
consider the actual Water Demand and then find out the source to full fill that demand. It is
necessary to find out, not only daily demand but also total annual requirement is to be
determined.

COMMON DEMANDS OF A COMMUNITY

1. Daily water demand.
2. Commercial water demand.
3. Demand for public amenities.
4. Fire demand.
5. Water required for compensating losses in wastes, thefts, etc.

DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND (PER CAPITA DEMAND)

USE CONSUMPTION IN LPCD

COOKING & DRINKING 10
BATHING 35
CLOTH WASHING 30
UTENSILS WASHING 20
CLEANING OF HOUSES 20
FLUSHING OF LATRINES, 30
etc
TOTAL 145LPCD

COMMERCIAL WATER DEMAND

This includes the quantity of water required to be supplied to offices, factories, hostels,
hospitals, etc. this depends on the type of the city or town and nature of establishments.
Normally on an average a provision of 20 - 25% of the total water consumption of the
community will be considered.

DEMAND FOR PUBLIC AMENITES

This includes the quantity of water required for public utility purpose such as watering for
public parks, gardening, washing and sprinkling on roads, use in public fountains etc.
normally on an average of 5% of the total water consumption of the community will be
considered.

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FIRE DEMAND
In thickly populated areas, fires generally break out and may lead to serious damages if not
controlled effectively. Normally water required for fire demand hardly amounts to about 1
litres/person/day, which is also considered in our design.

COMENSIATING – LOSSES IN WASTAGE,THEFTS,ETC

This includes the water lost in leakages due to poor plumbing fittings, unauthorized water
connections, other losses and wastes etc. these losses can be reduced by careful
maintenance. This amount is usually taken as 15% of the total consumption.

QUALITY OF WATER
Water samples were collected from the reservoir and analysed for Drinking Water,
Quantity parameters as per BIS: 10500 - 2003. To know the quality of water, this is to be
supplied to the village. Based on the result is obtained for the available water source we
have designed the treatment plant.

INTAKES FOR COLLECTING SURFACE

The basic function of the intake structure is to help in safety with - drawing water from the
source over a predetermined range of pool levels and then to discharge this water into the
withdrawal conduct through which it flown up to the water treatment plant.

RESERVOIR INTAKE
The intake structure is used to draw the water from earthen dam reservoir. It essentially
consists of an intake tower constructed on the slope of the dam on U/S at such a place from
where, intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even in the driest period. Intake pipes
are fixed at different levels so as to draw water near the surface in all variations of water
level.
All the inlet pipes are connected to the one vertical pipe inside intake well. The water enters
the vertical pipe from the other side of the dam from an outlet pipe. Screens are provided at
the mouth of all intake pipes to prevent the entrance of floating and suspended objects in
them. Sleeve valves are provided at the top of the intake tower to control the flow of water.
The valve tower is connected to the top of the dam by means of Foot Bridge.

WATER TREATMENT
Since the water is not pure the treatment process is essential for this project. Ideal water for
drinking means it should be free from all the impurities, undesirable taste and odours with
reasonable temperature, colour, etc. The treatment processes involved for purification of
water are as follows,
1. Screening
2. Filtration
3. Aeration
4. Plane sedimentation
5. Sedimentation aided with coagulation

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6. Softening
7. Disinfection
8. Miscellaneous treatments.

QUALITY OF WATER
In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is subjected to various tests. These tests can be
divided into following 3 categories,
1. Physical tests.
2. Chemical tests.
3. Bacteriological tests.

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS) SPECIFICATION

FOR DRINKING WATER (BIS: 10500 – 1991)
Characteristic or Undesirable effect outside the
DL PL
parameter Desirable Limit
Color, Hazen units, Above 05 consumer acceptance
05 25
max decreases.
Un-
Odour (TON) - -
objectionable
Taste Agreeable - -
Turbidity, NTU, Above 05, consumer acceptance
05 10
max decreases
Beyond this range the water will affect the No
pH value 6.5 - 8.5 mucous membrane and / or water supply
system. relaxation

Total hardness (as Encrustation in water supply structure and

300 600
CaCO3) mg/L, max adverse affect on domestic uses
Beyond this limit taste / appearances are
Iron (as Fe) mg/L, affected, has adverse affect on domestic
0.3 1.0
max uses and water supply structures, and
promotes iron Bacteria.
Chlorides (as Cl) 250
Beyond this limit, taste, corrosion and 1000
mg/L, max palatability are affected.
Residual, free
0.2 - -
chlorine, mg/L, min
Total Dissolved
Beyond this palatability decreases and
Solids (TDS) mg/L, 500 2000
may cause gastro intestinal irritation
max
Calcium (as Ca) Encrustation in water supply structure and
75 200
mg/L, max adverse effects on domestic use
Beyond this limit taste / appearances are
Manganese( as Mn)
0.1 affected, has adverse affect on domestic 0.3
mg/L, max
uses and water supply structures

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Beyond this causes gastro intestinal
Sulfate (as SO4)
200 irritation When magnesium or sodium are 400
mg/L, max
present
Beyond this
45 Mathemoglobinemia (blue baby disease) 100
Nitrate (as NO3) takes place in infants
mg/L, max
1.0 Fluoride may be kept as low as possible. 1.5
Fluoride, (as F)
High fluoride may cause fluorosis
mg/L, max
Beyond this, it may cause objectionable
Phenolic
0.001 taste and odor 0.002
compounds (as
C6H5OH)
mg/L, max
0.001 Beyond this, the water becomes toxic No relaxation
Mercury (as Hg)
mg/L, max
0.01 Beyond this, the water becomes toxic No relaxation
Cadmium (as
Cd) mg/L,
max
0.01 Beyond this, the water becomes toxic No relaxation
Selenium (as Se)
mg/L, max
0.05 Beyond this, the water becomes toxic No relaxation
Arsenic (as As)
mg/L, max
0.05 Beyond this, the water becomes toxic No relaxation
Cyanide (as
CN),mg/L,
max
0.05 Beyond this, the water becomes toxic No relaxation
Lead (as Pb)
mg/L, max
05 Beyond this limit it can cause astringent 15
Zinc (as Zn)
taste and an opalescence in water
mg/L, max
Anionic detergents
(as MBAS) mg/L, 0.2 1.0
max

Polynuclear
Aromatic
- May be carcinogenic -
Hydrocarbons (as
PAH) mg/L, max

Mineral oil, mg/L,

0.01 0.03
max

Pesticides,
Absent Toxic 0.001
mg/L,max

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Alkalinity, mg/L, Beyond this limit taste becomes
200 600
max unpleasant

Aluminum, (as Al), Cumulative effect is reported to cause

0.03 0.2
mg/L, max dementia

Boron, (as Bo),

01 - 05
mg/L, max

Magnesium, (as 30 Encrustation to water supply structure

100
Mg), mg/L, max and adverse effects on domestic use.

Chromium (as 0.05 No

0.05 May be carcinogenic above this limit
Cr6+) mg/L, max relaxation

Copper (as Cu) Astringent taste, discoloration and

0.05 corrosion of pipes, fittings and utensils 1.5
mg/L, max will be caused beyond this.
DL = Desirable Limit also known as Requirable limit.

PL = Permissible Limit in absence of Alternate source

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The purpose of the distribution system is to convey plenty of water to the consumer to each
house in sufficient quantity and quality. Depending upon the topography of the village, any
one of the following three methods may be adopted for the distribution of water:
1. Gravity System.
2. Gravity and Pumping systems combined.
3. Pumping System.

A. GRAVITY SYSTEM
In this system, the treated water is conveyed through pipes by gravity only.

GRAVITY AND PUMPING SYSTEM COMBINED

In this system, the treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution Reservoir.
Systems of Supply
The system of supply is classified into two categories:
➢ Continuous supply.
➢ Intermittent supply.
Continuous Supply
In this system of supply, the water is supplied to the Consumer for 24 hours of the day.
Intermittent Supply
In this system of supply, the water is supplied during.
Pipe Appurtenances:
Various appurtenances are required to be fitted in the network for the distribution system
for its efficient and controlled functioning and to make the distribution of water easy and

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effective.
Some of the appurtenances are as follows:
• Sluice valves: These are used to regulate the flow of water through the pipes and
are helpful in dividing the water mains into suitable sections.
• Air valves: These are used to remove the accumulated air in the pipes.
• Scour valves: These are used to empty water in the pipes in case of inspection and
repairs.
• Pressure relief valves: These are used to reduce the pressure caused due to water
hammering.
• Check valves: These are used to prevent the water to flow back in the opposite
direction.
• Pipe fittings: The various pipe fittings such as bends, crosses, tees, elbows, wyes
unions, plugs, flanges, nipples etc. are frequently used in making service connections.

DATA TO BE COLLECTED
The following data must be collected for planning water supply projects:
• Data on water requirements of the city including the data of population and their
water needs, and the data on industrial establishments and their requirements (This
will help in estimating the quantity of the water requires at present as well as in the
future).

SANITARY SYSTEM
The water after consumption has to be suitably disposed. Moreover the other wastes from
the communities are also to be carried off and disposed suitably. The sanitary project
requires careful thinking and planning and it is not as simple as water supply project. It
requires many factors to be considered before a particular line of treatment is
recommended.

PURPOSE OF SANITATION
The main purpose of sanitation is to maintain an environment, which will not affect the
public in generally. It is a preventive measure for the preservation of health of community
in general and individual in particular. Hence sanitation aims at creation of such condition
of living, which will not result into serious outbreak of epidemics.

PRINCIPLES OF SANITATION
Following are the ideal principles of sanitation which if observed results in better living
condition.
• Collection and conveyance
• Interior decoration
• Orientation of buildings
• Prevention of dampness
• Supply of water
• Treatment of waste

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DESIGN AND PLANNING OF A SEWERAGE SYSTEM
The following points should be taken into consideration while designing the sewerage
system.
• The sewerage system should be carefully planned and designed and so as to remove
the entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses and up to the point of
disposal.
• The sewer should be of adequate size so as to avoid their overflow and subsequent
damages to properties and health hazards.
• The sewer pipes should be designed on a slope that will permit reasonable velocity
of flow. This flow velocity should neither be too large as to scour the sewer pipe
material nor should be too small to cause deposition of solids in the sewer bottoms.
• In order to provide adequate and economical treatment it is necessary to study the
constituents of sewage produced thoroughly in the particular project and quality of
water that will receive the sewage.
• The sewers are generally designed to carry water from basement and should be
therefore be 2-3 meters deep. As far as possible there should be design to flow ½ or
¾ full.
The following types of survey were conducted:
• Plane table work: the plan of the village will be prepared by plane table surveying.
• Levelling work.
• Longitudinal section along the proposed water supply scheme and the sewage
scheme: taken all along left and right side of the road at the intervals 30m
• Block levelling work was conducted.

OXIDATION POND/ SEPTIC TANK

An artificial tank of shallow depth formed for the retention of sewage for sufficient time is
known as septic tank or oxidation ditch or sewage stabilization pond or lagoon. These
ponds may be used to treat raw sewage or partially treated sewage. The treatment of latter is
more popular with these ponds.
The credit of inventing oxidation ditch goes to Dr. A. Pasveer, an engineer scientist of
Netherlands (Holland) and hence, this type of low cost sewage treatment device is
popularly known as the Pasveer Ditch in many parts of the world.

ACTION
The septic tanks purify sewage by dual action of aerobic bacteria and algae. The sewage is
stored under climatic conditions which are favourable for the growth of algae, namely
sunshine and warmth. The aerobic bacteria obtain oxygen from the atmosphere and use it in
the decomposition of organic matter of sewage. The carbon dioxide produced during
decomposition of carbohydrates of sewage is broken up by algae by the process of
photosynthesis into carbon and oxygen. The carbon is used in producing more
carbohydrates and the released oxygen keeps the dissolved oxygen content of water at high
level.

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CONSTRUCTION
The septic tank is constructed with shallow depth. The shallow depth permits the
penetration of sunlight into the body of sewage and it thus encourages the growth of algae.
It is desirable to provide a freeboard of about one meter or so. The pond is constructed into
compartments of suitable sizes and the sewage is allowed to flow in zigzag manner through
these compartments.

DESIGN ASPECTS
For proper development of algae, the detention period should be at least 7days and
preferably 2 to 6 weeks. The area required for oxidation ponds varies considerably with the
climatic conditions of the locality. It varies from 250 to 1000 persons per hectare. The
loading may also be expressed in terms of B.O.D. The loading on this basis varies from 150
to 300kg/hectare/day. Under certain circumstances, the oxidation ponds may produce no
effluent because of evaporation and seepage. But in practice, most of the oxidation ponds
are usually designed as units with continuous flow.
Advantages of the septic tank
• The action involved in the operation of oxidation ponds is a natural one and it
• results in considerable reduction in cost as compared to the artificial sewage treatment
units.
• The maintenance and operation of oxidation ponds are simple and easy.
• The septic tanks are highly efficient in the removal of the B.O.D. and coliforms.
• The B.O.D. removal is about 90% and the removal of coliforms is to the extent of about
99% or so.
• The septic tank shows economical where land is cheaply available and suitable dry
climate exists.
• The stabilization ponds give rise to large quantities of algae which are found to be a
very good source of protein. The algae can be harvested and processed suitably to
meet with the increased demand of proteins.

Disadvantages of the septic tank

• The septic tank may give out objectionable odours and cause the nuisance of
mosquitoes. They should therefore be constructed at a sufficient distance away from
the residential locality and the banks of ponds should be kept clear of grass, bush,etc.
• The septic tank may sometimes become septic due to overloading or unfavourable
cloudy season. To avoid the development of such conditions in the ponds, the sodium
nitrate may sometimes be added to the ponds.
Uses of septic tank
• The septic tank is suitable for small towns situated in tropical with dry climate and
warm temperature where 200 or more sunny days are expected per year and which
have natural depressions of ground.
• The Indian conditions are most suitable for the adoption of septic tank. As such, the
shallow septic tank has proved very effective for sewage treatment in developing
countries with warm sunny climates

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GENERAL STANDARDS FOR DISCHARGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTANTS: SEWAGE (AS PER CPCB, NEW DELHI):

STANDARDS
Characteristics/
Inland surface Public Land for
Parameter Marine coastal areas
water sewers irrigation
Color and odor * - * *
a) For process waste
water-100
Suspended solids b) For cooling water
100 600 200
mg/L, max. effluent 10% above
total suspended matter
of effluent
a) Floatable solids,
Particle sizes of Shall pass 850 Max. 3mm size
- -
Suspended solids micron IS sieve b) Settelable solids,
max, 850 microns
5.5 -
pH value 5.5 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0
9.0

Shall not exceed

Shall not exceed 50C
50 C above the
Temperature in 0C - - above the receiving
receiving water
water temperature
Temp

Oil and grease,

10 20 10 20
mg/L, max.
Total residual
chlorine, mg/L, 1.0 - - 1.0
max
Free ammonia as
5.0 - - 5.0
(NH3) mg/L, max
Biochemical
Oxygen Demand,
30 350 100 100
mg/L max. (BOD5
or BOD3)
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) 250 - - 250
mg/L

= All efforts should be made to remove color & odor as far as practicable.
Note: Inland surface water – Streams, Rivers, Ponds, Lakes etc.
Marine coastal areas– Into sea or ocean.

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DESIGN STEPS
ESTIMATION OF THE FUTURE POPULATION
Total number of dwelling = 60
Assuming the number of inhabitants as 6 in each house 60*6 = 360
FLOATING POPULATION
Daily pilgrim = 250
Marriage party = 250
Education camp = 100
Total population = 600
Therefore population = 600+400 = 1000
Assuming increase in population / decade as 25%

By Geometric Increase Method

The population at the end of the design period of 30years
Present population* (1+ (r/100)) n
Pn = Po ( 1 + (r/100))n
= 1000 (1+ 0.25)3
= 1953.12 = 2000persons

By Arithmetic Increase Method

Population at present = 1000
Population increase per decade = 1000/3 = 334
Population at 30 years = present population + average increase
= 1000 + 334 = 1334
Consider highest population among both the above methods
Rate of water demand:
For human beings 135lpcd & For cattle’s 50lpcd

Quantity of water required (Q1)= population * demand

= 2000 * 135
= 270000lts
Quantity of water required for cattle’s (Q2)= population * demand
= 200* 50
= 2700lts
Total quantity of water required = Q1+ Q2
=108+5
= 113m3/day

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Assuming maximum demand = 1.8 * 270000
= 486 m3 / day
DESIGN OF PUMPING UNIT
Assuming the velocity of water in the rising main = 0.9m/sec
Quantity of water to be pumped = 486 * (24/6)
= 1944 m3/day
= 1944 / (24*60*60)
= 0.0225 m3 / sec
Using, Q=AxV
(π * d2) / 4 = 0.0225/0.9 = 0.0225m2
d = 0.18m
Provide diameter of rising main = 20cms.
CAPACITY OF THE PUMP
B.H.P = WQH / (75 * ƞ)
W = 1000 kg/m3
q = 0.023 m3/sec
Hd = 20m
L = 300m
f = 0.01
Hs = 4m
Head loss due to friction in pipe Hf = (0.01 * 3000 * 0.0232) / (3 * 0.205)
Hf = 16.5m
Total head = Hs+Hd+hf
H = 20 + 4 + 16.5
H = 40.5 m
Capacity of pump = ( 1000 * 0.023 * 40.5) / (75 * 0.85)
= 14.61 H.P
Provide two pumps of 15HP out of which one is stand by
DESIGN OF PRESEDIMENTATION TANK
Quantity of water to be stored = (486 * 24 ) / 6
= 1944 m3/day
= 81m3/hr
Providing a detention period of 3.5 hrs
Effective storage of sedimentation tank = 3.5 * 81 = 283.5m3

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Providing effective depth of 3m
Area of the tank required = 283.5 / 3 = 94.3m3
Assuming L:B ratio 3:1
Area = 3B2
B = 5.61m L = 16.84m
Providing free board of 0.5m
The dimension of pre-sedimentation = 17 * 6 * 3.5m
Maximum daily demand = 486 * 10^3 / (100 * 24 ) = 202.5m3
Assuming L = 2B = 2B2
B = 7.14m
Providing 2 filters
L = 2 * 7.14 = 14.3m
The dimension of filter is 8 * 15 = 120m2
Provide 2 unit of filter out of which 1 is stand by
DESIGN OF FILTERS
Average daily demand = 200 * 135
= 27000lt/day
Max. Demand = (486 * 103) / (100 * 24 )
= 202.5m3
Assuming L = 2B, L = length of filter
B = breadth of filter
Area = L * B = 2B2
Quantity of water to be treated = 468 m3/day
Assuming a detention period of 30min
Quantity of water to be treated = 486 * (30 / (60 * 24)
= 10.125m3
Provide 1.5m depth
C/S area = 10.125 / 1.50 = 6.75 m2
Assuming C/B = 2:1
Area = L * B = 2B2 = 6.75m2
Therefore B = 1.83m
Length = 2B = 2*1.83 = 3.6m
Providing a free board of 0.5m, overall provide a chlorination tank depth = 2m
Therefore dimensions = 3.72 * 2 * 2m

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DESIGN OF OVER HEAD TANK
The maximum daily demand of water = 486 m3/day
The water tank should have a storage capacity of demand of locality
Assuming height of the tank (Depth of the tank) , H = 4m
Providing a circular tank, the diameter of tank D = ((4 * 486 ) / (π * 4)
= 12.43 = 13m

DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The distribution system to be designed for discharge of 0.023m3/sec
Providing 0.9m/sec velocity the diameter of pipe will be equal to 30cm
Main diameter of distribution system = 20cm
Sub main distribution = 0.6 * 20 = 12cm
Lateral pipe = 10.8cm

ESTIMATION OF QUANTITY OF DRY WEATHER FLOW & WET WEATHER

FLOW
DRY WEATHER FLOW = discharge * 80% of water supply = 486 * 0.80
= 388.8m3/day
= 388.8/(24 * 3600)
= 0.0045m3/sec
Maximum dry weather flow = 3*0.0045 = 0.0135m3/sec
WET WEATHER FLOW = AIR/360
where, A = App. Area = 2.5hec
I = 0.7 assumed
R = Intensity of rainfall = 15mm/sec
= (2.5 * 0.7 * 15 ) / 360
= 0.0729m3/day
Total discharge = DDF+WWF
= 0.0131315 + 0.0729
= 000864m3/day
DESIGN OF SEWER PIPES
Diameter of pipes (stone ware)
Assuming that the pipe is running half full
Longitudinal slope = 1 in 60

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Hydraulic mean radius m = ( wetted area / wetted perimeter )
Using Manning's formula;
V = 1/ (n) * (m2/3 * I1/2)
WKT discharge
Q = AV
0.0864 = ((π * d2)/4) * (1/0.012) * (d/4)2/3 * (1/60)1/2
d = 0.3m
Provide main sewage pipeline diameter = 30cm
Provide sub main sewage pipeline diameter = 20cm
Provide lateral sewer pipeline of diameter = 10cm
CHECK FOR THE VELOCITY
Non-silting velocity = 0.75m/sec
Non-scouring velocity = 3-4 m/sec
For I=1/60
V = (1/0.012) * (0.30/4)2/3 * (1/60)1/2
V = 1.913m/sec
The above value is in between 0.75m/sec - 3m/sec
Hence, the velocity of the sewage is within the permissible limits.

DESIGN OF SEPTIC TANK

Quantity of the sewage entering to septic tank = 562.72 m3/day
Assuming a detention period of 24hrs,
Quantity of sewage produced = (562.72 * 24 ) / 24
= 3m3
Assuming the rate of sludge deposition as 30lts/capita/year and cleaning period as 1year
Volume of the sludge deposited = 30 * 2000 * 1
= 60000lts
= 60m3
Therefore capacity of the tank = 562.72+60 = 622.72 m3
Providing a depth of 2.5m
Surface area of the tank = 622.72 / 2.5
= 249.1 m2
Assuming (L/B) ratio = 4:1
249.1 = 4 * B2

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B = 7.89m
Therefore L = 31.56m
Providing 50cm freeboard, overall depth = 3m
Dimension of tank = 32 * 8 * 3m

DESIGN OF THE SOAK PIT

Assuming a percolation capacity of filter media = 1250 l/m3/day
Volume of the filter media = (622.72 * 1000) / 1250
= 498.18 m3
Assuming a circular soak pit of diameter D = (π * d2) / 4
= 12.46m (app. 12m)
Using 50cm free board, overall depth = 3.5 + 0.5
= 4m
Dimension of the soak pit, diameter = 13.5m
Depth = 4m

CONCLUSION
• Going through the recorded data it was observed that village is gaining prominence as
a pilgrimage centre involving quite a few infrastructure developments. As a result it has
increase a lot of families to get settled whose help was needed in carrying outr all the
day to day works.
• Thus it was concluded that a good water supply scheme along with sanitation works to
be provided, future village to make it an ideal place of tourist interest, this in long run
will contribute the exchequer.

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HIGHWAY PROJECT

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INTRODUCTION

Transport facilities on land, sea and air are indispensable for the economic progress of a nation.
Transport on land may be by road, rail or water. Pipelines are also used for transport of bulky
liquid or gaseous commodities like petroleum or natural gas. Power transmission lines helps in
transport of power from generating station to the consumers.

ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND TRANSPORT:
It is universally recognize that an effective transport system is crucial for sustained economic
growth and modernization. lt is also considered that transport plays a significant role in the
overall development of a nation's economy.

SOCIAL ASPECTS:

Transport facilities enable people to move from place to place in search of employment and for
business or pilgrimage or for pleasure People are able to understand each other and appreciate
difference in language, culture, etc. The significance of transport is especially felt in large
country like India with diverse people speaking a number of languages.

RURAL DEVLOPMENT:

Only the improvement in transportation facilities in rural areas there would be

faster development of the rural centres.

DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

* ROAD TRANSPORT

* AIR TRANSPOR

*RAIL TRANSPORT

*WATER WAYS

*SEA WAYS.

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IMPORTANCE OF ROAD TRANSPORT IN INDIA

The importance of roads in a vast country like India can scarcely be exaggerated. A system of
well designed, well-constructed and well maintained roads is essential for the country's
economic and cultural progress. The roads have to play a vital role in the defence of the country.

It has extra advantage in terms of easy availability, flexibility of operation, adaptability to

individual need, door to door service and reliability. It is the main means of transport in hilly
and remote areas. As a result road transportation earned an increasingly higher share of
passengers and traffic freight in comparison to other modes of transport. It is one of the basic
infrastructures for economic development of backward areas. It also provides feeder services
to rail traffic, airways, ports and harbours.

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Roads are constructed on a plain levelled surface normally. But many a times, roads are
constructed on small embankments, slightly above the general ground level. This facilitates
drainage and proper maintenance. Such road are therefore termed “Highway” and technology
dealing with road engineering is called as

"HIGHWAY ENGINEERING"

The branch of transportation engineering which deals with the design, construction and
maintenance of different types of roads is called road engineering or Highway engineering.

SCOPE OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Apart from the design, construction and maintenance of different types of roads, highway
engineering also includes the study of the following topics:

> Development, planning and location of roads.

> Materials required for their construction

> Highway traffic performance and its control

> Drainage of roads

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

The layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called as the alignment. The
horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and curves. Changes
in the gradient and vertical curves are covered under the vertical alignment of the roads.

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A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in one or more
of the following disadvantages:

> Increase in construction cost

> Increase in maintenance cost

> Increase in vehicle operation cost

> Increase in rate of accidents

Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase
in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the road side.

Hence the importance of careful considerations while finalizing the alignment of a new road
should be overemphasized.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

BASED ON WHETHER THEY CAN BE USED DURING DIFFERENT SEASON OF

THE YEAR

• All-weather roads

• Fair weather roads

All weather roads are those which are negotiable during all weather, except at major river
crossings where interruption to the traffic is permissible up to a certain extent, the road
pavement should be negotiable during all‐weather roads which are called as fair weather roads;
on these roads, the traffic may be interrupted during the monsoon season at causeways where
streams may overflow across the road.

BASED ON TYPE OF CARRIAGEWAY OR THE ROAD PAVEMENT

• Paved road: if they are provided with a hard pavement course, which should be at least
a water bound macadam layer.

• Unpaved road: if they are not provided with a hard pavement course of at least water
bound macadam layer. Thus, earth roads and gravel roads maybe called unpaved roads.

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BASED ON THE LOCATION AND FUNCTION

1. National highway (NH)

2. State highway (SH)
3. Major district roads (MDR)
4. Other district roads (ODR)
5. Village roads (VR)

BASED ON 3RD 20YEAR ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLAN

1.Primary System (EXPRESS WAY, NH)

2.Secondary System (SH, MDR)
3.Tertoary System (ODR, VR)
Classification of urban road
* Arterial Road
* Sub-Arterial Road
* Collector Street’s
* Local street’s

ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY

• Provisional alignment identification (Map study)
• Preliminary Survey
• Reconnaissance survey
• Final location to determine centre line and detailed survey

IDEAL REQUIREMENT OF THE HIGHWAY:

The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that is should
be:-

SHORT:

It is desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations. A straight alignment
should be shortest, though may be several practical considerations which would cause
deviations from the shortest path.

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EASY:

The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum
problems. Also the alignment should be easy for the operation of vehicles with easy gradients
and curves.
SAFE:

The alignment should be safe enough for the construction and maintenance from the view point
of stability of the natural hill slopes, embankments and cut slopes and foundation of the
embankments. Also it should be safe for the traffic operation with safe geometric features.
ECONONIICAL
The road alignment could be considered economical only if the total cost including the initial
cost, maintenance cost and the vehicle operation cost is lowest. All these factors should be
given due consideration before working out the economics of each alignment

NEED FOR HIGHWAY PLANNING

In the present era, planning is considered as a pre-requisite before attempting any development
program. This is practically true for any engineering work, as planning is the basic need for
highway development. Particularly planning is of great importance when funds available are
limited in contrast to the amount required which would be very high. This is actually the most
important problem that has to be addressed by the developing countries like India as funds have
to be utilized in the best possible and economic way.

OBJECTS OF HIGHWAY PLANNING ARE AS FOLLOWS:

* To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at a minimum cost.
* The cost of the construction, maintenance and renewal of pavement layers and the vehicle
operation costs must be given due considerations.
* To arrive at a road system and lengths of different categories of roads, which could provide
maximum utility and can be constructed within the available resources during the plan period
under consideration.
* To fix up date wise priories for development of each road link based on utility as the main
criteria for phasing the road development program.
* To plan future requirements and improvements of road in view of anticipated developments.
* To work out financing system.
FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGN MENT:
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as follows
1. OBLIGATORY POINTS
2. TRAFFIC
3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

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4. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
OBLIGATORY POINTS:
These are the control points governing the alignment of the highways. These control points
may be divided broadly into two categories.
• POINTS THROUGH WHICH ALIGNMENT SHOULD PASS
• POINTS THROUGH WHICH ALIGNMENT SHOULD NOT PASS
Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass may cause the alignment to
often deviate from the shortest or the easiest path. The various examples of this category may
be bridge site, intermediate town, a mountain pass or a quarry.
Obligatory points through which the road should not pass also may make it necessary to deviate
from the proposed shortest alignment. The obligatory points which should be avoided while
aligning the road includes religious places, very costly structures, unsuitable land etc.
Religious places like temples, mosque, church, grave or tomb have been protected by law from
being acquired for any purpose. Acquiring costly structures would mean heavy compensation
resulting in increased cost. Marshy, peaty and water logged areas are generally unsuitable for
road construction and should be avoided as far as possible.
TRAFFIC:
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Origin and destination study should be
carried out in the area and the desire lined be drawn showing the trend of the traffic flow
patterns and the future trends.
GEONIETRIC DESIGN:
Geometric design factors such as the gradient, radius of the curve and the sight distance also
govern the final alignment of the highway. lf straight alignment is aimed at, often it may
necessary to provide very steep gradients. As far as possible while aligning a new road, the
gradient should be flat and less than ruling gradient. Thus it may be necessary to change the
alignment in view of the design speed, maximum allowable super elevation and the co-efficient
of lateral friction.it may be necessary to make adjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads
keeping in view the minimum Radius of the curve and the transition curve.
ECONOMY:
The alignment finalized based on the above factors should also be economical. ln working out
the economics, the initial cost, the maintenance cost and the vehicle operation cost should be
taken into account. The initial cost of construction can be decreased if high embankments and
deep cuttings are avoided and the alignment is chosen in a manner to balance the cutting and
filling.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS:
Various other factors which may govern the alignment are the drainage considerations,
hydrological factors, political considerations and monotony.
The vertical alignment is often guided by the drainage considerations. The subsurface water
level, seepage flow and high flood level are the factors to be kept in view.

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A foreign territory coming across a straight alignment will necessitate deviation of the
alignment around the foreign land. Sometimes the alignment is decided only on the strategic
conditions.
ln a flat terrain it is possible to have a very long stretch of road, absolutely straight without out
curve, but straight roads of very long stretch may be monotonous for driving. Hence after a few
kilometres of straight road, it may be desirable to have a slight bend to break the monotony and
keep the driver alert.

PLANNING SURVEYS CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING

1. Economic studies
2. Financial studies
3. Traffic or road use studies
4. Engineering studies

1. Economic Studies: The various details to be collected are useful in estimating the economics
involved in highway development program. All details of the existing facilities should be
available before estimating the requirement such that economic justification can be made for
each plan. The details to be collected include the following:
• Population and its distribution in each village, town or other locality with the classified
in groups.

2. Financial Studies: Financial studies are essential to study the various financial aspects like
sources of income and the manner in which funds for the project may be mobilized.
The details to be collected include:
• Sources of income and estimated revenue from taxation on road transport.
• Living standards.
• Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration and fines.
• Future trend in financial aspects.

3. Traffic or Road Studies: All the details of the existing traffic, their volume and pattern of
flow should be known before any improvement could be planned. Traffic surveys should carry
out in the whole area and on the selected routes and the locations in order to collect the
following particulars:
• Traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and design hourly
traffic volume.
• Origin and destination studies.
• Traffic flow patterns.
• Mass transportation facilities.
• Accidents, their cost analysis and causes.
• Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic; trend in traffic pattern
• Growth of passenger trips and the trend in the choice of modes.

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4. Engineering Studies: All details of topography, soil and other problems such as drainage,
construction and maintenance problems should be investigated before a scientific plan or
program is suggested.
The studies include:
• Topographic surveys.
• Soil surveys.
• Location and classification of existing roads.
• Estimations of possible developments in all aspects due to the proposed highway.
• development.
• Road life studies.
• Traffic‐studies‐Origin and Destination studies.
• Special problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads.

THE FOLLOWING POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE ALIGNING ANY TYPE

OR ROAD:
* Cutting and embankment must be balanced
* Curves of larger radius should be used in no case; the radius of curves should not be less than
16m.
* A flat gradient as far as possible should be used, only when unavoidable conditions, the ruling
gradient has to be given.
* Super elevation 'OR' Cant has to be given for all the curves.
* Transition curves should be provided between curve and a straight
alignment.
* Vertical curve should be provided whenever the gradient changes.
* The alignment should be the most economical with economical drainage crossing, so it should
follow the ridge.
GRADIENTS FOR ROADS IN DIFFERENT TERRAINS
TERRAIN RULING LIMITING EXCEPTIONAL
GRADIENT GRADIENT GRADIENT
Plain Or Rolling 1/ 30 1/20 1/15
Mountains & steep terrain with elevation 1/20 1/16.7 1/14.3
more than 3000m above MSL
Steep terrain up to 3000m height above 1/16.7 1/14.3 1/12.5
MSL

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WIDTH OF ROADWAY FOR VARIOS CLASSES OF ROADS
SL Road Classification Roadways width in meters
No Plain & Rolling Mountainous &
Terrain Steep Terrain
1 National & State Highway
a) Single lane 12.00 6.25
b) Two lane 12.00 8.60
2 Major district Roads
a) Single lane 9.00 4.75
b) Two lanes 9.00 --
3 Other District Roads
a) Single lane 7.50 4.75
b) Two lanes 9.00 --
c) Village Roads 7.50 4.00

DESIGN SPEED
Design speed of vehicles for various classes:
Road Plain terrain Rolling terrain Mountainous Steep terrain
classification terrain
Ruling Min Ruling Min Ruling Min Ruling Min
N.H & S.H 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
M.D.R 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
O.D.R 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
V.R 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

PAVEMENT CAMBER OR CROSSFALL

Camber or cross fall values for different road surface types:
SL.NO SURFACE TYPE CAMBER/CROSSFALL
1 High type bituminous surfacing or cement concrete 1.7-2.0%(1 in 60 to 1 in 50)
2 Thin bituminous surfacing 2.0-2.5%(1 in 50 to 1 in 40 )
3 Water bound macadam ,gravel 2.5-3.0%(1 in 40 to 1 in 33)
4 Earth 3.0-4.0%(1 in 33 to 1 in 25)

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THE FOLLOWING DRAWINGS ARE USUALLY PREPARED IN A HIGHWAY
PROJECT:
> KEY MAP
> INDEX MAP
> PRELIMINARY SURVEY PLANS
> DETAILED PLAN AND LONGITUDINAL SECTION DETAILED CROSS-SECTION
> LAND ACQUISITION PLANS
> DRAWINGS OF THE CROSS DRAINAGE AND OTHER RETAINING
STRUCTURES
> DRAWING OF THE ROAD INTERSECCTION
> LAND PLANS SHOWING THE QUARRIES

KEY MAP:
Key map should show the proposed and existing roads and important places to be connected.
The size of the plan generally should not exceed 22cm >< 20cm the scale of the map is chosen
suitably depending upon the length of the road.
INDEX MAP:
Index map should show the general topography of the area. The details are symbolically
represented. The index map should also be of suitable scale, the size being 32cm x 20c“m.
PRELIMINARY SURVEY PLANS
Preliminary survey plans showing the details of the various alternate alignments and all
information collected should be normally drawn to a scale of 10cm = lkm to 25cm = lkm.

DETAILED PLAN:
Detailed plan showing the ground plan with the alignment and the boundaries, contours at
intervals of 1 to 2m in plain country at a scale of a 1 and on close country at a scale 1
2400 1200
may be adopted for the detailed plans.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION:
Longitudinal section should be drawn to the same horizontal scale of the ground as in the
detailed plan. Vertical scale may be enlarged 10 times of the longitudinal scale. The
longitudinal section should show the details as datum line, existing ground surface and vertical
profile of the proposed road and the position of the drainage crossings.
DETAlLED CROSS-SECT ION:
Detailed cross sections are generally drawn to a natural scale of lcm = 2.0 to 2.5m. cross
sections should be drawn every 100m or where there are abrupt changes in level. ln hill roads
the cross section drawings should extend at least up to the proposed right of way. The cross

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section number, the reduced distances and the area of filling/ area of cutting should be shown
in the cross section drawings.
LAND ACOUISITION PLANS:
Land acquisition plans and schedules are usually prepared from the survey drawings for the
land acquisition details. These plans show all general details such as buildings, wells, nature of
the gradients and other details required for assessing the values. The scale adopted may be lcm
= 40cm or less.
DRAWINGS OF THE CROSS DRAINAGE AND OTHER RETAINING
STRUCTURES:
Detailed design for cross drainage and masonry structures are usually drawn to scale of lcm =
lm. For details of any complicated portion of the structure enlarged scales up to 8cm' = lm or
up to half full size may be employed. However the size of the drawing should not exceed the
standard size. Cross section of the streams should be to a scale of not less than 1 cm = 10m.

LAND PLANS SHOWING THE QUARRIES

Land plans for the quarries where quarries for the construction materials are to be acquired for
the new projects; separate land plans should be prepared. The size of these maps and scales
may be similar to those suggested under land acquisition

PROJECT REPORT:
The project report forms an important part of the project document. lt should contain the
information such as;

* Feature of the road including the selection of the route, alignment, traffic, etc.

*Road design and specification

* Drainage facilities and cross drainage structures
* Materials, labour and equipment

*Rates

* Construction programming
*Other miscellaneous items like diversion roads, traffic control, road side amenities, rest
houses, etc.
NEW HIGHWAY PROJECT:

The various steps in a highway project may be summarized as given below

MAP STUDY:
With the help of available topographic maps of the area.
RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY:

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A general idea of the topography and other features, field identification of the soils and survey
of the construction materials by an on the spot inspection of the site.

PRELIMINARY SURVEY:

Topographic details and soil survey along the alternate alignments, considerations of the
geometric design and other requirements of the alignment, preparation of the plans and
comparison of the alternate routes, economic analysis and selection of final alignment, typical
plan, longitudinal section and cross section drawing for the new alignment.

LOCATION OF FINAL ALIGNMENT

Transfer of the alignment from the drawings to the ground by driving pegs along the centre line
of finally chosen alignment, setting out the geometric design elements by location of the
tangent points, apex points, circular and transition curves, elevation of the centre line and super
elevation details.

DETAILED SURVEY:

Survey of the highway construction work for the preparation of the longitudinal and cross
section, computations of the earthwork quantities and other construction materials and
checking details of the geometric design elements.

MATERIAL SURVEY:

Survey of the construction materials, their collection and testing.

DESIGN;

Design details of the embankment and cut slopes, foundation of the embankments and bridges
and pavement layers.
EARTHWORK:

Excavations for the highway cutting and drawings system, construction of the embankments.
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION:

Preparation of the subgrade, construction of the sub base and surface courses.

CONSTRUCTION CONTROLS:

Quality control tests during the different stages of the construction and check for the finished
road surface.

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NECESSITY OF RE-ALIGNIVIENT:

The re-alignment of the existing roads may be necessary in the following cases:

Improvement of the horizontal alignment design elements such as radius, super elevation,
transition curve, clearance on inner side of the curve, clearance on inner side of the curve or
shifting the curve to provide adequate sight distance, elimination of the reverse curves and
undesirable zigzags, etc.
Improvement of the vertical alignment design elements like steep gradients, changes in summit
curves to increase the sight distance, correction of the undesirable undulations -like humps and
dips etc.,

Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to flooding, submergence or water
logging during the monsoon.
Re-construction of the weak and narrow bridges and culverts and changes in the water way at
locations slightly away from the existing site.
Construction of the over - bridges at suitable locations across a railway line in place of the level
crossing or across another road to provide grade separated intersection. Re - alignment required
due to portion of the road being submerged under water at the reservoir area on account of the
construction of a new dam.
Construction of the bypass to avoid the road running through a town or city.

STEPS lN RE - ALIGNMENT PROJECT:

The following are the steps followed in the re alignment of the highway project:

Reconnaissance of the stretch of the road to be re - aligned, study of the deficiencies and the
possible changes in the alignment. Survey of the existing road recording the topographic
features and all other existing features including the drainage conditions along a strip of the
land on either side of the road. The width of the land to be surveyed depends on the amount of
the shifting anticipated when the road is re - aligned. The field work may be carried out using
plane and level by tacheometry.

Observations of the spot levels along the centre line of the road and cross section levels at
suitable intervals to note the gradient cross slopes, super elevation, etc. the cross section levels
should be taken at closer intervals at horizontal and vertical curves and at cross drainage works.

Soil survey along the stretches of the land through which the re - aligned road may possibly
pass, preparation of the typical soil profiles after testing the soil samples in the laboratory.

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Comparison of the economics and considerations of the feasibility of the alternate proposals of
the re - alignment and special study of the stretches which are difficult for the re - alignment.

Finalization of the design features of the re - aligned road stretches.

Preparation of drawings (typical drawings showing the plan, longitudinal section and cross
section for a re - alignment project).

Marking out the centre line of the re - aligned road while trying to utilize the existing road to
the maximum extent possible.

Earthwork and preparation of the subgrade of the re - alignment road stretches setting out and
construction of the new bridges and culverts.

Checking the geometric design elements of the newly aligned stretches of the road.

Design and construction of the new highway pavements.

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTION ALONG THE CENTRE LINE OF THE

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

OBJECT

To conduct longitudinal and cross section of survey along the centre line of the highway and
to estimate the quantity of different materials required for the road
INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

1 Prismatic compass with Tripod stand

2. Ranging rods

3. Wooden pegs, plumb bob

4. Arrows

5. Dumpy level with Tripod stand

6. Levelling staff

7. Chain, tape
8. Flags

PROCEDURE:

1. A temporary bench mark (B.M) is established by carrying out fly levels from the permanent
bench mark.

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2. From this point, staff readings are taken along the centre line of the road (called longitudinal
section readings) at 10m interval preferably at lower interval in steep ground.
3. Cross section levels are taken at every 30m chainages, on either side of the centre line of the
road. The intervals along the transverse line being 2m for a length of 12m on both left and right
side of the alignment.

4. The process is continued till the last point of the highway on either side of the centre line.
5. The fore bearing of alignment is also noted down in the level book to know the direction of
alignment.
DRAWINGS REQUIRED:
1. L/S of the profile of highway alignment to a suitable scale.
2. C/S at various chainages showing the ground profile of the road to a suitable scale.

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DESIGN STEPS

DESIGN DATA AND SPECIFICATIONS (IRC : SP : 20-2002)

1. Type of road = Village Road

2. Width of carriage way = 3.8m single lane
3. Road way width (Right of way) = 15m
4. Terrain type = Rolling (10-20% cross slope)
5. Rainfall = medium intensity
6. Pavement = Thin bituminous surface
7. Design speeds for village road (v), kmph = 40(Ruling) $ 35(Minimum) for rolling
terrain
8. Minimum radii for village = 60m (ruling min) & 45m (absolute min)
9. Roads (R) = for rolling terrain
10. Gradients (Rolling_ = 1 in 30(ruling) & 1 in 20 (limiting)
11. Coefficient of lateral friction, f = 0.15 for 40kmph (max)
12. Coefficient of longitudinal friction, f = 0.40
13. Super elevation (e) = 0.07 (max)
14. Camber = 1 in 25 or 2.5% (depends on rainfall)
15. Safe stopping sight distance = 45m for design speed of 40kmph
16. No super elevation is required for radius beyond 350m for design speed of 40kmph and
2% camber
17. Extra width of pavement (We)-0.60m for single lane for a radius unto 60m(from 21m)
as per IRC in the absence of calculation
18. Minimum length of vertical (summit and valley) curve for grade change values higher
than 1.2% for design speed of 50 kmph is 20m. For grade change lower than 1.2% no
vertical curve is required. Minimum length is 15m for grade change exceeding 1.5%
for design speed of 35kmph
19. Reaction time of the driver (t) = 2.5sec for 40-60 speed
20. Side slopes in ordinary soil = 1:1, soft rock (1/4:1)
SOIL TESTING AND PAVEMENT DESIGN
Soil brought from site are tested for
i. Grain size analysis
ii. Group index to classify the soil (Based on LL & PL)
iii. CBR values

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From the results obtained pavement thickness is designed adopting standard procedure.

LAB EXPERIMENTS
The existing highway pavement of S S Ghati temple has been surveyed to the distance of
1000m chain-age. After survey we took the soil sample of 20kg on the roadside.

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

i. We took of soil sample of 1000gm.
ii. Then soil sample is placed over set of sieves of sizes with finest sieve and pan at bottom.
iii. Then we calculated the % of Finer.
RESULT : The soil is sandy, gravel, clay soil

LIQUID LIMIT
i. By means of grooving tool gauge and adjustment plate, adjust cup of liquid limit
apparatus to fall exactly 1cm on the point of contact on the base.
ii. Take about 200g of an air dried soil sample passing 425 microns sieve and mix
thoroughly with distilled water to give a stiff and uniform paste.
iii. Place a portion of the paste in the cup. Level off with a spatula the top surface grooving
through the soil paste along the diameter through the centre of the hinge.
iv. Turn the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and count number of blows until
the 2 parts of come in contact at the bottom along a dist, of about 10mm.
v. Record number of blows at which the groove closes. Remove about 15gm of soil
forming the edges of the groove that flowed together and determine the water content
by oven drying.
vi. After conducting the test results the graph is plotted number of blows on x-axis and
water content on y-axis. The results are plotted on a semi log graph sheet.

RESULT : Liquid limit of the soil is 36%

PLASTIC LIMIT
The soil is non-plastic in nature

COMPACTION TEST
i. Take sample weighing approx. 3kg of thoroughly mixed without lumps and passing
through 4.75mm sieve.
ii. Clean the mould and fix it to the base. Take the empty weight of it and inside surface
is greased.
iii. Mix the soil thoroughly by adding water. And compact it in three layers and each layer
is being compacted by 25 blows.
iv. Remove the collar cut the excess soil with help pf straight edge. Clean the mould from
outside and weigh it.

RESULT : The maximum dry density 1.61 g/cc

Optimum moisture content 17.80%

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CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
i. Sieve the material through 4.75mm sieve.
ii. Take about 5kg of soil thoroughly by adding optimum water content.
iii. Compact the soil in the mould in 3 layers and each being compacted by 55 blows.
iv. Remove the collar and trim off the excess soil by a straight edge.
v. Remove the base plate spar dust then keep the surcharge weight.
vi. Immerse the mould assembly and weight in a tank of water allowing free occurs of
water to the top and bottom specimen.

RESULT : For the given soil the CBR value for 2.5mm and 5mm is 1.82% & 2.33%

DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (IRC : 37-2001)

Computation of Design Traffic

The design traffic is considered in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles to be
carried during the design life of the road. This can be computed using the following equation:
N = 358 * [ ( 1 + r )n – 1 ] * A * D * F/r
Where,
N = The cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design in terms of
million standard axles (msa)

A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms of commercial vehicles

per day

D = Lane distribution factor

F = Vehicle damage factor

N = Design life in years

R = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles

The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using the following formula:
A = P * (1 + r)x
Where,
P = Number of commercial vehicles as per last count

x = Number of years between the last count and the year of completion of construction

Here, P = 202 CVPD

D=1
F = 1.5
n = 10 years
r = 5%
x = 2 years

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Therefore, A = 202 * ( 1+ 0.05 )^2
= 222.705 CPVD

Therefore, N = 352 * ((1+0.05)^10-1) * 222.705 * 1.5/0.05)

= 2.45 MSA

Since it is a village road and the rainfall is of medium intensity, we can safely assume the CBR
of the sub-grade soil as 7%.

Total pavement thickness for CBR 7% and traffic 2.45 MSA obtained from graph given in IRC
: 37-2001 = 450mm

Pavement Composition interpolated from IRC Graph, for CBR 7% are

Bituminous surfacing = 150mm Wearing coarse
Road base = 150mm WBM
Sub-base = 150mm (Granular material of CBR not less than 30%)

CALCULATION OF S. S.D
V = 40 km/hr
S.S.D = (0.278 V*t) + V2 / (254f)
S.S.D = 90.80m
Where,
t = total reaction time of the driver = 2.5sec
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction = 0.15
But S.S.D for two way traffic single lane = 2*S.S.D = 182m

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Design of Transition curves
Assuming, speed (V) = 100kmph
Super elevation (e) = 0.07
Co-efficient of friction resistance (f) = 0.15
Ruling radius = V2/127 * ( e*f)

= 1002/127* (0.07+0.15)
= 360m

Design of super elevation

f = V2/(127 * R )- e
f = 1002 / (127*360)-0.07
= 0.178
As the value of lateral friction co-efficient “f” developed is less than 0.15, the super elevation
design of 0.07 is safe

Length of transition curve

Length of transition curve as per allowable rate of centrifugal acceleration
C = 80 / (75 + V) = 80/(75 + 100 ) = 0.475m/s2

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As the value of C is less than 0.8 hence it is accepted.
Hence, L = 0.0215V3 / (CR)
= 0.0215*1003 / (0.457*360)
= 130.68m
Length of transition curve by introduction of super elevation
e = V3/225R
= 1003/225*360
= 0.123
As the value is lesser than the maximum allowable rate of 0.07
f = V2 / (127 * R)-e
f = 1002 / (127 * 360)-0.07
f = 0.148
As the friction co-efficient is less than the allowable value of 0.15, the super elevation rate of
0.07 is safe for design speed of 100kmph.

Total width of pavement = 3.8m

Assuming the total rise of the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the centre line
= (E/2) = (e*B)/2
= (0.07*3.8) = 0.133m
Rate of introduction of super elevation 1 in N (1 in 147)
L = (E/2) * N
L = 0.133 * 147
L = 19.551m

Length of transition curve by IRC recommendation

L = (2.7*V2) / R
L = (2.7 * 1002) / 360
L = 75m

Adopt the highest length of the curve among all the 3 values
L = 130.68m

DEIGN OF LONGITUDINL DRAIN OF HIGHWAY

Using Ryve’s formula, we ca calculate the flood discharge

Q = C * M2/3
Since the rainfall in the area is of medium intensity, we can assume C = 9
M = Catchment area in Sq.km

Considering 0.7km length of highway and 25m width from the centre of highway, we get the
road side drainage area = 0.7*25/1000 = 0.0175 Sq.km

Therefore, Q = 9*0.05^2/3 = 0.606 m3/sec

From, continuity equation we have Q = A * V

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Where,
A = cross-sectional area of drain
V = velocity in drain = 1.5 m/s (assumed)
Therefore, A = 0.606/1.5 = 0.404m2

Assuming a trapezoidal section with base width = 0.6m and side slope 1:1
Therefore, Area of trapezoidal drain, A = (B + n * d)*
Solving the above equation, we get d= 0.466m
Providing a free board of 1.5m,
We get the total depth of trapezoidal drain as 0.616m

Determination of longitudinal slope of drains

Consider Manning’s formula, V = (R2/3 * s1/2) / n
Where, V = Velocity in drain = 1.5m/s
n = Rugosity co-efficient for bed material = 0.02 (assumed)
A = Area of trapezoidal drain = 0.404m2
P = Perimeter of trapezoidal drain = B + 2 * y * ( 1 + n2 )
= 2.14m
Therefore, Hydraulic radius R = 0.404/2.14 = 0.188m
Substituting the above values in Manning’s formula, we get
1.5 = (0.188^2/3*s^1/2)0.02
Therefore, s = 3.95*10^3
Hence provide a slope of 1 in 120 for longitudinal drain.

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EARTHWORK CALCULATION
Downward gradient upto 195 m 1 in 25 25 0.04
0.01666666
Downward gradient from 195 m to 390 m 1 in 60 60 7
Downward gradient from 390 m to 735 m 1 in 500 500 0.002
Downward gradient from 735 m to 1000 m 1 in 200 200 0.005
Formation width=b 6.2 m
0.66666666
side slope 1 in 1.5 1.5 7
chainage 15 m
Length
Area of betwee
2 Total n each Quantity of Quantity
Chainag RL of the leangth of FL OF "d"=FL Central area = triangle Area=(dm*b chainag filling in of cutting
e ground road ROAD -RL "dm" dm*b s ) +(2*dm2) e (m3) in (m3)
0.000 1006.995 0.000 1006.995 0.000 - - - - - - -
1.000 1006.225 15.000 1006.395 0.170 0.085 0.527 0.011 0.538 15.000 8.068 -
2.000 1005.540 30.000 1005.795 0.255 0.212 1.317 0.068 1.385 15.000 20.779 -
3.000 1004.735 45.000 1005.195 0.460 0.357 2.216 0.192 2.408 15.000 36.123 -
4.000 1004.020 60.000 1004.595 0.575 0.517 3.208 0.402 3.610 15.000 54.153 -
5.000 1003.360 75.000 1003.995 0.635 0.605 3.751 0.549 4.300 15.000 64.501 -
6.000 1002.830 90.000 1003.395 0.565 0.600 3.720 0.540 4.260 15.000 63.900 -
7.000 1002.080 105.000 1002.795 0.715 0.640 3.968 0.614 4.582 15.000 68.736 -
8.000 1001.450 120.000 1002.195 0.745 0.730 4.526 0.799 5.325 15.000 79.880 -
9.000 1000.950 135.000 1001.595 0.645 0.695 4.309 0.725 5.034 15.000 75.503 -
10.000 999.445 150.000 1000.995 1.550 1.097 6.804 1.807 8.611 15.000 129.169 -
11.000 999.025 165.000 1000.395 1.370 1.460 9.052 3.197 12.249 15.000 183.741 -
12.000 998.555 180.000 999.795 1.240 1.305 8.091 2.555 10.646 15.000 159.683 -
13.000 998.105 195.000 999.195 1.090 1.165 7.223 2.036 9.259 15.000 138.883 -

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14.000 997.855 210.000 998.945 1.090 1.090 6.758 1.782 8.540 15.000 128.102 -
15.000 997.590 225.000 998.695 1.105 1.097 6.804 1.807 8.611 15.000 129.169 -
16.000 997.375 240.000 998.445 1.070 1.087 6.742 1.774 8.516 15.000 127.747 -
17.000 997.165 255.000 998.195 1.030 1.050 6.510 1.654 8.164 15.000 122.456 -
18.000 996.880 270.000 997.945 1.065 1.047 6.494 1.646 8.140 15.000 122.106 -
19.000 996.720 285.000 997.695 0.975 1.020 6.324 1.561 7.885 15.000 118.269 -
20.000 996.645 300.000 997.445 0.800 0.887 5.502 1.181 6.684 15.000 100.260 -
21.000 996.535 315.000 997.195 0.660 0.730 4.526 0.799 5.325 15.000 79.880 -
22.000 996.435 330.000 996.945 0.510 0.585 3.627 0.513 4.140 15.000 62.105 -
23.000 996.385 345.000 996.695 0.310 0.410 2.542 0.252 2.794 15.000 41.912 -
24.000 996.375 360.000 996.445 0.070 0.190 1.178 0.054 1.232 15.000 18.482 -
25.000 996.375 375.000 996.195 -0.180 0.125 0.775 0.023 0.798 15.000 - 11.977
26.000 996.300 390.000 995.945 -0.355 0.268 1.659 0.107 1.766 15.000 - 26.488
27.000 996.260 405.000 995.915 -0.345 0.350 2.170 0.184 2.354 15.000 - 35.306
28.000 996.255 420.000 995.885 -0.370 0.358 2.217 0.192 2.408 15.000 - 36.123
29.000 996.295 435.000 995.855 -0.440 0.405 2.511 0.246 2.757 15.000 - 41.356
30.000 996.365 450.000 995.825 -0.540 0.490 3.038 0.360 3.398 15.000 - 50.972
31.000 996.455 465.000 995.795 -0.660 0.600 3.720 0.540 4.260 15.000 - 63.900
32.000 996.715 480.000 995.765 -0.950 0.805 4.991 0.972 5.963 15.000 - 89.446
33.000 996.830 495.000 995.735 -1.095 1.023 6.340 1.568 7.908 15.000 - 118.616
34.000 997.030 510.000 995.705 -1.325 1.210 7.502 2.196 9.698 15.000 - 145.472
35.000 997.200 525.000 995.675 -1.525 1.425 8.835 3.046 11.881 15.000 - 178.214
36.000 997.110 540.000 995.645 -1.465 1.495 9.269 3.353 12.622 15.000 - 189.323
37.000 997.080 555.000 995.615 -1.465 1.465 9.083 3.219 12.302 15.000 - 184.535
38.000 997.145 570.000 995.585 -1.560 1.512 9.377 3.431 12.809 15.000 - 192.135
39.000 997.180 585.000 995.555 -1.625 1.592 9.873 3.804 13.678 15.000 - 205.164
40.000 997.010 600.000 995.525 -1.485 1.555 9.641 3.627 13.268 15.000 - 199.021
41.000 996.970 615.000 995.495 -1.475 1.480 9.176 3.286 12.462 15.000 - 186.924
42.000 997.100 630.000 995.465 -1.635 1.555 9.641 3.627 13.268 15.000 - 199.021
43.000 997.200 645.000 995.435 -1.765 1.700 10.540 4.335 14.875 15.000 - 223.125
44.000 997.190 660.000 995.405 -1.785 1.775 11.005 4.726 15.731 15.000 - 235.964

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45.000 997.320 675.000 995.375 -1.945 1.865 11.563 5.217 16.780 15.000 - 251.705
46.000 997.580 690.000 995.345 -2.235 2.090 12.958 6.552 19.510 15.000 - 292.652
47.000 997.800 705.000 995.315 -2.485 2.360 14.632 8.354 22.986 15.000 - 344.796
48.000 997.990 720.000 995.285 -2.705 2.595 16.089 10.101 26.190 15.000 - 392.851
49.000 998.150 735.000 995.255 -2.895 2.800 17.360 11.760 29.120 15.000 - 436.800
50.000 998.280 750.000 995.180 -3.100 2.997 18.584 13.478 32.062 15.000 - 480.930
51.000 998.030 765.000 995.105 -2.925 3.012 18.677 13.613 32.290 15.000 - 484.354
52.000 997.715 780.000 995.030 -2.685 2.805 17.391 11.802 29.193 15.000 - 437.896
53.000 997.425 795.000 994.955 -2.470 2.577 15.980 9.965 25.946 15.000 - 389.186
54.000 997.190 810.000 994.880 -2.310 2.390 14.818 8.568 23.386 15.000 - 350.792
55.000 996.840 825.000 994.805 -2.035 2.172 13.469 7.080 20.549 15.000 - 308.237
56.000 996.595 840.000 994.730 -1.865 1.950 12.090 5.704 17.794 15.000 - 266.906
57.000 996.320 855.000 994.655 -1.665 1.765 10.943 4.673 15.616 15.000 - 234.238
58.000 996.195 870.000 994.580 -1.615 1.640 10.168 4.034 14.202 15.000 - 213.036
59.000 996.130 885.000 994.505 -1.625 1.620 10.044 3.937 13.981 15.000 - 209.709
60.000 995.905 900.000 994.430 -1.475 1.550 9.610 3.604 13.214 15.000 - 198.206
61.000 995.810 915.000 994.355 -1.455 1.465 9.083 3.219 12.302 15.000 - 184.535
62.000 995.710 930.000 994.280 -1.430 1.443 8.944 3.121 12.065 15.000 - 180.971
63.000 995.415 945.000 994.205 -1.210 1.320 8.184 2.614 10.798 15.000 - 161.964
64.000 995.200 960.000 994.130 -1.070 1.140 7.068 1.949 9.017 15.000 - 135.261
65.000 995.025 975.000 994.055 -0.970 1.020 6.324 1.561 7.885 15.000 - 118.269
66.000 994.345 990.000 993.980 -0.365 0.668 4.139 0.668 4.807 15.000 - 72.103
67.000 994.215 1000.000 993.930 -0.285 0.325 2.015 0.158 2.173 10.000 - 21.734
Total qty
Total qty of
of cutting
Filling
required in required
m3 in m3
2133.6067 8780.210

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CONCLUSION

The preliminary and detailed investigation to align a new road between two obligatory points
was complete effectively by conducting necessary survey.

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RESORATION OF OLD TANK

PROJECT

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INTRODUCTION
Every rainy season surface runoff carries large amounts of silt into reservoir. The silt
deposits reduce the storage capacity of the reservoir over the years. The reduced storage
capacity of the tank can be increased by raising the sill level of the waste weir. Sometimes due
to bad maintenance, the profile width of the earthen dam may also get altered due to erosion of
the downstream slope as well as wear and tear of the top surface to vehicular movement. The
deteriorated section of the bund is given the required slope, free board, top width in order to
restore the earthen dam. Sometimes it may also be necessary to increase the height of the bund.
As a result, the net water storing capacity of the reservoir would be restored to its designed
capacity

IRRIGATION TANK DESCRIPTION

a) An earthen bund across the valley creating storage.
b) A surplus weir to dispose of flood discharge.
c) Sluice to feed the channel.
d) Channel to feed the command area.

THE GENERAL PROBLEMS OF AN IRRIGATION TANK

a) Reduction in the gross storage capacity of the tank, due to silting and
b) Reduction in the safety of the bund, due to wearing out of the dimensions of the bund.
The above problems can be overcome by restoring the tank. Restoration of the tank is done
either by de-silting or by raising the height of existing bund, thereby allowing increasing
the storage and improving safety of bund.
But, there are number of reasons for increasing height of an existing dam. Bund raises can
be categorized in two ways, namely as
a) “Planned” storage construction
b) “Unplanned” storage construction
In planned storage construction, a bund is designed considering that it will be raised at
some- time in the future. In this case, the initial construction & subsequent stages of
construction of the bund are planned and carried out in such a manner that each raise is
compatible both with the next raise & with the final cross section of the completed bund.
In most cases however the increase in the height of a bund are unplanned. The unplanned
bund raise also typically arises out of the need for increased storage capacity, but it may
also be related to dam safety issues. In contrast to a planned raise the unplanned staged
construction raise must be designed to fit and be compatible with the initial stage of
construction.

REASONS FOR INCREASING THE HEIGHT OF TANK BUND

The primary reasons for increasing the height of an existing bund are:

(a) INCREASED STORAGE CAPACITY

The storage available at the upper levels of a reservoir for a given increase in bund height
can be significant depending upon the topography of the reservoir. In many cases significant
increased storage can be obtained with only small increase in the height of the dam. This is
because the surface area of an existing reservoir at spillway level is large and adding a few
meters to the Reservoir storage capacity can be enhanced by several thousands of hectare

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(b) STRENGTHENING
Quite frequently the most feasible means of strengthening an existing bund to withstand the
various loading combinations acting on it involves a modification to the cross section of the
bund and possibly an increase in the height of the dam. An obvious by product of raising a
bund for strengthening purposes is increased storage capacity.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DESIGNING RAISES FOR EXISTING BUND

The issues associated with the design of raise for an existing bund is that a special attention
must be paid for developing a full understanding of the configuration & physical properties
of the existing bund so that the raised portion is compatible with existing portion. Neither
there are a number of general factors that need to be considered and are these outlined
briefly.

(a) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The raising of existing bund dam will result in higher reservoir water levels and
corresponding greater areas of land inundated by this which may have serious
environmental implications other significant environmental permitting issues that could
impact the design related to borrow sources in stream flows releases wet lands,
archaeological sites and stream modifications.

(b) SPILLWAY
Depending on the size of the raise & the resulting increase in reservoir level major
modifications of the existing spillway or perhaps even a completely new
Spillway will be required. This can have significant influence on the cost.

(c) OUTLET WORKS

Modifications to the outlet works of dam/bunds are often required as a part of the raise.
Typically this involves extending the outlet conduit to the new embankment toe location &
possible relocating the intake structures or stilling basin. Control towers located at the
central line of bunds/dams also need to be raised.

(d) RESERVOIR OPERATIONS

If the reservoir is lowered or emptied during construction will have significant influence on
both the feasibility and the design of the raise when the reservoir is lowered the raised
portion can be constructed partially upstream of the existing dam & thus could
significantly, fascinate to the existing core of the dam moreover depending on materials
availability or environmental constraints on the locating of barrow areas, Barrow areas may
be confined to the undated portions of the reservoir this has the added advantage of
increasing reservoir storage by an amount equal to the barrow volume. The benefits of an
upstream or a partial upstream raise are offset by a need to improve & replace upstream
slope protection and the need to extend the outlet works upstream.
If the reservoir cannot be lowered during construction; materials for construction on the
raise may have to be imported from offsite.

(e) CENTRAL CORE

For a very small increase in height compared to the original height of the dam/bund it is
typically most economical to the core of the addition to the core of the existing dam/bund
for significantly greater raises a completely new core may have to be constructed such that
the existing dam/bund may not be feasible for use.

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(f) DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Embankment drains are frequently included in the design of raises to existing dams/bunds
even if the original dam/bund did not include a drain system the designer must carefully
evaluate whether drainage needs to be in corporate into the raised embankment section
The design considerations outlined above apply in the general sense to any proposed
dam/bund raise yet each dam/bund is unique & has its own set of design issues that need to
be addressed.

To carry out the above said works site data is required. These data are collected through the
survey works.
SURVEYS TO BE CONDUCTED:-
1. Longitudinal section and cross section of tank bund.
2. Capacity contour surveys.
3. Block levels at waste weir site.

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTIONS ALONG THE CENTER LINE OF THE

EXISTING BUND

➢ EQUIPMENTS
1) Dumpy Level with stand 2) Leveling staff
3) Compass with stand 4) Ranging Rods
5) Chain.

PROCEDURE
• Considering the sill of the waste weir as bench mark, leveling work is carried out to
determine the RL of top of abutment of waste weir.
• A Point along the center line of the existing bund (beyond the existing portion of the
bund) is located whose RL is one meter higher than RL of top of the abutment.
• This point is taken as point of zero chainage. The location of this point should be fixed
with respect to three permanent objects.
• RLs along the center line are taken at every 30m intervals and cross sections are taken
at every 60 meter interval. Salient features such as sluice and waste weir positions are
located while traversing along the center line.
• While taking cross sections RLs and chainages of the followings points should be also
noted:

a) The two top edges of the bund.

b) At least one point on the u/s side.
c) The junction point of d/s side of earthen bund and ground (Toe of the bund)
d) At least one intermediate point between the top edges of the bund.
e) Points beyond the top of bund are taken at approximate intervals of 5m. The
number of such points to be taken depends upon the height of bund. The
minimum number of such points shall be one and maximum of three.

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• The last point on the traverse shall have same RL as the Zero change points. The
location of end point also should be fixed with respect to three permanent objects.

Drawings:

• LS of the bund showing the position of sluice and waste weir showing the existing
profile of the bund and proposed formation levels for the bund and waste weir.
• Cross-section at every 30m intervals showing the profile of existing and proposed
bunds.

Scale: a) Longitudinal section: the ratio of horizontal to vertical shall be 1:10

Horizontal 1: 1000; vertical 1:100
c) Cross Section- the ratio of horizontal to vertical shall be 1:1
CAPACITY CONTOURS AT THE EXISTING AND PROPOSED FULL TANK
LEVELS.
➢ EQIPMENTS

(1) Level with stand (2) Levelling staff, (3) Plane table with accessories
(4) Measuring Tape (5) Arrows. (6) Ranging rods

PROCEDURES:

• Taking the sill of Waste weir as reference, points on the contours are located at
approximately 15m intervals.
• The plane table is set up at a good commanding station and oriented.
• The Plane table and leveling instrument are kept as close as to each other as possible so
that the distance between the contours point and the plane table can be measured by
Tachometry contour points are located on the plane table by radiation method.
• Salient features such as electric poles, telephone poles location of bund, sluice etc, and
nature of the terrain should be plotted on the sheet.
• Whenever the plane table and level are to be shifted choose a commanding position by
conducting reconnaissance.
• The plane table and level are shifted to the new commanding position of plane table is
located on the drawing sheet before shifting.
• Three point problems shall be solved for every third plane table station in order to orient
plane table accurately.
• The contour work should be ended at the starting point on the waste weir.
• Drawings: Contour plan with respect to the center line of bund and waste weir preferred
scale (1:1000)

CALCULATIONS:

• To estimate the quantity of earthwork involved in restoration of earthen bund.

• To compute the increased storage capacity of the reservoir.
Restored storage capacity= (A1+A2) h/2

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Where A1 = Area of Existing FTL Contour.
A2 = Area of proposed FTL Contour.
H = Contour interval.

In surveying ‘area’ means the extent of a tract of land as projected upon a horizontal
plane and not the actual area of the tract. For steep tracts, the actual area is more than the
projected area. The area of the tract of the land is computed from its plan.

The method selected for computation of the area depends upon the shape of the tract
and accuracy required. The areas of figures like triangles, rectangles etc. Can be determined
from the dimensions given in the plan. If the boundaries are irregular, these are replaced by
short straight boundaries and the area is determined using appropriate methods.

These areas of irregular shapes can be determined by means of a planimeter. The

planimeter is also commonly used to check the areas computed by other methods.

Units

• In S.I units area is measured in square meters, hectares or square kilometers.

• 1 hectare = 104 m2
• 1 sq km = 106 m2 = 100 hectare

METHODS USED FOR COMPUTATION OF AREAS

• Triangle method
• Mid-ordinate rule
• Average-ordinate rule
• Trapezoidal rule
• Simpson’s rule
• Meridian distance method
• Double parallel distance method
• Coordinates method
• Approximate methods

TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

In this method, the tract is divided into a number of trapezoids and the area of each
trapezoid is determined separately.

The area is calculated as follows:

A=(o1+o2)/2d+(o2+o3)/2d+(o3+o4)/2d+-------------

or in general,

A=d[(o1+on+1)/2+o2+o3+ ---- +on]

Where,

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d = common distance = L/n

L = length of the base

n = number of segments

Therefore, in trapezoidal rule, the area is equal to the product of the common distance‘d’ with
the sum of the intermediate ordinates and the average of two end ordinates.

Alternatively,

2A = d[o1+o n+1 +2(o1+o2+ ------- +on)]

Thus twice the area is equal to the product of the common distance ‘d’ with the sum of
the end ordinates and twice the intermediate ordinates. While using the trapezoidal rule, the
end ordinates must be considered even if they happen to zero. The trapezoidal rule is more
accurate than mid-ordinate rule and the average-ordinate rule.

SIMPSON’S RULE:

Simpson’s rule may be stated as follows

“To the sum of the first and last ordinates, add four times the sum of even ordinates and twice
the sum of odd the ordinates and multiply the total sum by one-third the common distance d to
get the total area”.

It may be noted that the rule is applicable only when there are odd number of offsets.
If the offsets are even in number, the Simpson rule can be applied to determine the area up to
the last but one segment. The area of the last segment is determined separately and added to
the area obtained by the Simpson’s rule to calculate the total area.

COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES

The computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurements done in the
field is required in the design and planning of many engineering works. The volume of
earthwork is required for the selection of a suitable alignment for a road, a canal or a sewer.
The volume of earthwork is also required for the preparation of the estimates and for the
payment of bills for materials and labour.

The computation of the volume of water stored in a reservoir is required for its design, planning
and management. It is also required for estimation of the capacity of the tanks, bins etc.

The direct computation of the volume from the measurements of length, width and
depth is not feasible for large, engineering works. The computation of the volume of earthwork
is generally done after computing the areas of various cross-sections. Sometimes, spot levels
of the ground are taken to estimate the volume of earthwork. For the estimation of the volume
of water in a reservoir, the contour map is generally used.

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COMPUTATION OF AREA OF CROSS-SECTION

For estimation of the volume of earthwork, cross-sections are taken at right angles to a
centerline, which runs longitudinally through the earthwork. The volume of earthwork
between successive sections is determined from the areas of various cross-sections.

The basic problem in the computation of the volume of earthwork is therefore to

determine the cross-section areas. The method of computation of cross-sections will depend
upon the type of cross-sections.

The following five types of cross-sections generally occur in practice.

• Level section
• Two level section
• Side hill two level section
• Three level section
• Multilevel section

TWO LEVEL SECTIONS IN FILLING:

Figure shows a two level section in filling. It can be shown that the expressions for areas
developed for two level sections in cutting are also applicable to the two level sections in filling.

However, in this case,

W1 = (b/2+nh)m/(m + n), w2 = (b/2+nh)m/(m + n)

h1 = h-w1/m and h2 = h+w2/m

PRISMOIDAL FORMULA

The volume V of a prismoid is given by,

V = D/6(A1 + 4Am + A2)

Where,
A1, A2 are the end areas
Am is the area of the section situated mid-way
D is the distance between the sections

The above equation can be applied to determine the volume of earthwork. Treating alternate
sections as end sections and taking the length of each prismoid as 2D, the total volume is given
by,
V = V
= 2D/6 (A1+ 4A2 + A3) + 2D/6 (A3 + 4A4 )

V = D/3[(A1 + An) + (A2 +A4 + ---------) + 2 (A3 + A5 + )]

This formula is applicable only when the number of sections ‘n’ is an odd number. When ‘n’
is even number, the volume up to (n-1) sections should be determined. The last section may
be determined separately by trapezoidal formula.

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DESIGN STEPS
DATA’S OF BUND: -
Top level of bund : 893.105 m
Maximum water level (M.W.L.) & Top level of weir : 892.105 m
Full supply level (F.S.L.) : 891.105m
Sill level of sluice :-
Existing Top width of bund :3m
Free board :1m
Upstream slope : 1:1
Downstream slope : 2:1
Total length of the bund : 270m
Existing length of weir : 18m

STORAGE CAPACITY AT DIFFERENT CONTOURS

Counter RL (m) Area enclosed Average area Quantity of water Cumulative

b/w bund & (m2) (A*CI) (m3) Volume of
contour line (m2) storage (m3)

890.030 35051.61 - - -
891.105 40931.43 37991.52 18995.76 18995.76
892.105 45096.5 43013.965 21506.9825 43013.96

Present capacity from contour cumulative volume at crest level of weir =18.995*10^3 m3
Capacity of dam if height is increased by 0.5m to a RL 892.33m=43.013*10^3 m3
Therefore increase in capacity of tank = 43.013-18.995
=24.018*10^3 m3

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EARTHWORK CALCULATION
Formation width=b 3 m
u/s side slope 1 in 1 1 1
d/s side slope 1 in 2 2 0.5 m
chainage 10 m
Total
Area=(dm*b)
+Area of 1st Length
leangth Central Area of triangle+Area between Quantity of
RL of the of FL OF "d"=FL- Area of 1st area = 2nd of 2nd each filling in
Chainage ground bund BUND RL "dm" triangle dm*b triangles triangles chainage (m3)
0 892.605 0 893.105 0.500 - - - - - - -
10 891.695 10 893.105 1.410 0.955 0.456 2.865 0.228 3.549 10 35.490
20 891.150 20 893.105 1.955 1.683 1.415 5.048 0.708 7.171 10 71.706
30 891.175 30 893.105 1.930 1.943 1.887 5.828 0.943 8.657 10 86.575
40 891.175 40 893.105 1.930 1.930 1.862 5.790 0.931 8.584 10 85.837
50 891.395 50 893.105 1.710 1.820 1.656 5.460 0.828 7.944 10 79.443
60 891.360 60 893.105 1.745 1.728 1.492 5.183 0.746 7.421 10 74.207
70 891.465 70 893.105 1.640 1.693 1.432 5.077 0.716 7.226 10 72.259
80 891.515 80 893.105 1.590 1.615 1.304 4.845 0.652 6.801 10 68.012
90 891.490 90 893.105 1.615 1.603 1.284 4.808 0.642 6.734 10 67.335
100 891.325 100 893.105 1.780 1.697 1.441 5.092 0.720 7.254 10 72.536
110 891.315 110 893.105 1.790 1.785 1.593 5.355 0.797 7.745 10 77.447
120 891.275 120 893.105 1.830 1.810 1.638 5.430 0.819 7.887 10 78.871
130 891.210 130 893.105 1.895 1.863 1.734 5.588 0.867 8.189 10 81.892
140 891.175 140 893.105 1.930 1.913 1.829 5.738 0.914 8.481 10 84.807
150 891.255 150 893.105 1.850 1.890 1.786 5.670 0.893 8.349 10 83.491
160 891.300 160 893.105 1.805 1.828 1.670 5.483 0.835 7.987 10 79.873
170 891.320 170 893.105 1.785 1.795 1.611 5.385 0.806 7.802 10 78.015
180 891.350 180 893.105 1.755 1.770 1.566 5.310 0.783 7.660 10 76.597

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190 891.370 190 893.105 1.735 1.745 1.523 5.235 0.761 7.519 10 75.188
200 891.410 200 893.105 1.695 1.715 1.471 5.145 0.735 7.351 10 73.509
210 891.360 210 893.105 1.745 1.720 1.479 5.160 0.740 7.379 10 73.788
220 891.250 220 893.105 1.855 1.800 1.620 5.400 0.810 7.830 10 78.300
230 891.040 230 893.105 2.065 1.960 1.921 5.880 0.960 8.761 10 87.612
240 891.540 240 893.105 1.565 1.815 1.647 5.445 0.824 7.916 10 79.157
260 891.510 260 893.105 1.595 1.580 1.248 4.740 0.624 6.612 20 132.246
270 891.710 270 893.105 1.395 1.495 1.118 4.485 0.559 6.161 10 61.613
Total
quantity
of filling
in m3 2015.805 m3

Conclusion:-
Since the cross staff rising height of structure in comparatively less with high increases in the storage capacity of the tank. It suggested
going for increasing the height of existing tank by 1m.

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LAYOUT
PLANNING
PROJECT

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INTRODUCTION
The term Town Planning is used to indicate the arrangement of various components or units of
a town in such a way that the town as such attains the significance of a living organism. It also
includes ways and means to be adopted, for the improvement of existing towns or for the
extensions on of towns. Thus the knowledge of town planning helps in achieving the best
possible advantages of the situation of town with repeat to it’s land and the surroundings
environments. In sense, it will be quite proper to say that God made the country and manmade
the town.
The Town Planning demands active imagination and sharp common sense of the understanding
of various needs of the society occupying likely to occupy the town. A town plans has to
prepare the layout plans us to carry the final results are appreciated by all the sectors of public.
The success of town plans lies in converting the town from an invert and object to a
complex organic body that pulses with life. A well planned town carries out it’s activities in
normal way like living organism. The urban growth or development is the man’s most civilised
creation.
The Town Planning is science as well as art too. The science consists in collecting, co-relating
and analysing the faults about a town. The art lies in arranging the components of town in a
such a way that the final result is in the form of a beautiful, economical and efficient unit. Thus,
science and art must not and cannot sit apart when a new town is being designed or when an
existing town is being are modelled. The science and art must joint their hands and work as co-
operators in the difficult task of bringing out a well arranged town.
The Town Planning, houses, is not an exact science and precise fore-castes future possibilities
are not attainable. But the gap between work and predictions can be brought down to minimum
by the co-operation of various agencies involved in the use and development of land.
OBJECT OF TOWN PLANNING
The town essential objects or ideals of any Town Planning.
1. Objects of beauty.
2. Object of convinience.
3. Object of environment.
4. Object of health.

OBJECT OF BEAUTY
The object of beauty is achieved by taking the most possible advantages of the natural
conditions surrounding of the town and also by giving architectural finishes to the various
components of the town. It also includes the presentation of the trees, natural greenary
architectural control on public as well as semi-public buildings.
OBJECT OF CONVINIENCE
The object of convinience is understood in the form if various economic, social and recreational
to be given to the public. These transport facilities adequate water supply, easy disposal of
sewage and industrial wastes facilities to commercial units etc

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OBJECT OF ENVIRONMENT
The object o environmental is important in the sense that environment should be moulded in
such a way that man can go about his normal activities with the least amount of strain. The
complex problems of modern society. Such as tiresome travel to work, long hours of work,
limited time spent within the committee etc…
OBJECT OF HEALTH
The object of health in a town planning scheme by making right use of land for right purpose
by providing parks and playgrounds for public.
PRINCIPLES OF TOWN PLANNING
Some of guiding principles of Town Planning are as follows,
1. Green belt
2. Housing
3. Public Building
4. Recreation Centres
5. Road Systems
6. Transport facilities

GREEN BELT
The provision of a green belt on the peripherals of town results in the limitation of its size.
HOUSING
Extreme care should be taken to provide hosing according to various categories of peoples.
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
There should be a well balanced grouping and distribution of various public building through
the town.
RECREATION CENTERS
Depending upon the size of town, enough space should be reserved for the development.
NECESSITY OF TOWN PLANNING
It is evident that a small house, if well arranged and planned ,looks far more better than a
disordered big place in a similar way, a town which is properly planned affords more comforts
and conveniences to the public .The necessity of town planning can very well be appreciated
by mentioning the evil situations which a town has to face in the absence of town planning.
They are as follows;
(1) defective road system resulting in the formation of narrow streets and lanes
(2) development of slums and squatter settlements
(3) haphazard locations of industries
(4) heavy traffic congestion during the working hours of day
(5) inadequate open spaces for parks and playground resulting in unhealthy living condition
(6) lack of essential amenities like electricity, water supply and drainage
(7) noisy atmosphere disturbing the peace of city dwellers

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FORMS OF PLANNING
To maintain the continuity in the planning process, the following five forms of planning are to
be considered:
1. Local planning
2 .Country Planning
3. Regional Planning
4. National planning
5. International Planning
LOCAL PLANNING
The development plan of city or town is prepared by keeping in view in the local
condition .It aims at proper distribution of population of density ,regulation traffic,location of
shopping and recreation centre provision green belts ,suitable division of area in various zones
,etc.It is quite evident that will be greatly influenced by economic conditions and finance
available for the development of the town.

COUNTRY PLANNING
The area surrounding a town cannot be allowed to develop in a haphazard way. Generally a
town is surrounded by villages and rural planning becomes necessary for the proper functioning
of the town. For this purpose, the surrounding villages should be linked with up suitable
transport facilities and wherever possible ,the encouragement should be given for the various
village industries such as dairy, poultry farming, basket and rope making weaving on manually
operated looms, etc. If possible the rural industries may even be supplemented by mechanical
aids.
A proper balance between the agriculture and industry should be maintained without disturbing
the character of rural area. It should be remembered that country planning and town planning
are complimentary to each other and they cannot be treated as two independent separate
entities.
REGIONAL PLANNING
The term regional planning is used to include proposals in a region for the distribution of
population and industries, transport facilities, rural services ,village industries, etc. A town or
city cannot be isolated from its surrounding region. Hence ,the regional planning helps in
controlling and reshaping the growth of major towns in the region. The term region is
generally used to define areas not merely or exclusively by natural boundaries, but equally by
political or administrative boundaries.
(a) Of the national economy especially in case of the developing countries.
It involves planning in terms of regional dimensions because mans mobility and his normal
activities are spread over a much larger area than what he used to cover In general, a region
may be defined as an area within which interaction is more intense than its interaction with
other areas and the modern practice is to embrace the following in regional planning:

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1.agricultural regions
2.industrial areas; development
3. large hydro-electric power stations
4.resort and recreational areas

The regional planning is necessary for the following reasons :

(a) it avoids the wasteful duplication of facilities. For instance, the local planning
cannot take care of highways and truck routes.
(b) It ensures the most profitable utilization of the resources at minimum expence for
the maximum benefit of both the individuals and communities in the region
(c) It gives the information regarding the economic functions which are to be performed
by the surroundings areas.
(d) It grants mutual control over the areas in the region. it gives the local planners
knowledge of relationship between the areas of the region and they can thus base
their plans on this information.
(e) It grants planned and harmonious in the days of bullock carts.
(f) It reveals new town planning and building principles and makes it possible to reject
to a certain extent a static character of new towns and to adopt a more flexible and
dynamic structure. It thus helps considerably for providing the requirements for the
development of a modern town.
(g) It serves as a link of co-operation and co-ordination between the areas of the region.
The main argument advanced against regional planning is that the regional planner may not
have the requisite knowledge of local needs and requirements and in that case, he would
concentrate only on regional requirements. It is possible to remove this defect the regional
planning by furnishing the regional planner with the necessary information of local
requirements.

NATIONAL PLANNING
The term national planning suggest the setting up the planning procedure on a national level
and it takes into consideration the various fields of a nation as a whole. By proper and careful
national planning, projects, heavy industries etc. can be utilizes in best possible manner. Our
various five-year plans serves as an illustration of national planning.

The planning can be visualized in different ways as follows:

(a) development of nation in terms of its administrative or political system;
(b) developments in terms of various economic sectors such as agriculture, fishing,
foresty, mining, etc
(c) development in terms of various social sectors such as clothing, housing, food,
education, health, recreation, etc.

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INTERNATIONAL PLANNING
With the establishment of United Nations Organization or UNO, the international planning has
come into efforts are made at international level to promote goodwill and co-operations
between different countries of the world. The various agencies appointed by UNO conduct
surveys in different fields of human life such as education, health, housing, etc. The study of
such surveys helps in finding out remedies and solutions of complicated problems at
international level.
COST OF TOWN PLANNING
The implementation of town planning schemes the use of resource of the community as such,
optimum cost of town planning can ideally be worked out by relating cost of planning to the
benefits derived from planning. It's possible in specific cases such as expansions to existing
towns and planning of new town costs of benefits by measuring land values
.
1.Amount of money which the community is willing to spend on roads, hospitals ,parks etc..
2.Law relating to town planning.
3. Present pattern of land use.etc..
Thus ,the ideal cost of planning will be the adoption of town plan which will maximize land
values within the given limitations.

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DESIGN STEPS
ROAD
a. Type of road : Other district road
b. Type of pavement surface : Thin bituminous surface
c. Width of carriage way : 7.0m
d. Width of shoulder : 1.0m
e. Cross slope provided : 2%
f. Design speed : 10-50kmph

COMPUTATION OF DESIGN TRAFFIC

The design traffic is given by,
N=((365x(1+r)^n-1)/r) x A x D x F
Where,
N=The cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design in terms of msa
A=Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms of the number of
commercial vehicles per day
D=Lane distribution factor
F=Vehicle damage factor
n=Design life in years
r=Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles
N=((365x(1+0.0075)^10-1)/0.0075)x100x0.75x1.5
N=5.8msa
Assume, CBR=6%

1 Total pavement thickness = 547.8mm

2 Bituminous surfacing,
wearing course = 27.4mm(SDBC)
Binder course = 52.4mm(DBM)
3 Granular base = 250mm
4 Granular sub base = 218mm

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WATER SUPPLY LINES

Assumptions
• No. of peoples in each house=04
• Per capita water consumption of water=135lpcd
• Hours of pumping=08hrs
• Velocity of flow of water in pipe=1.5m/sec
Calculation of design flow
Existing population=Existing number of houses x 4
= 1412x4
= 5648
Future population = 7045(x)
Quantity of water required per day
Average daily demand =X x 135
= 7045x135
= 951075litres/day
Fire demand = 1100litres/minute
= 3 x (3x1100) x (3x60)
= 1782000 litres/day
= 1782000/7045
= 253litres/person/day
Average daily demand= 951075+253=951328litres/day (Y)
Assuming maximum demand to be 1.8xaverage daily demand(Y)
Maximum demand = 1.8Xy
= 1.8x92951328
= 1712391 litres/day (Z)
Design of main supply pipe:
Let us assume that the water flows through gravity from overhead tank to distribution
network
Maximum demand = 1.8xYltrs
= (1.8xYx10^-3)/(24x60x60)
= (1712391x10^-3)/(24x60x60)= 0.0198 ------ say M cumecs
Assuming 10hours of supply i.e morning 5 hours and evening 5hours and peak factor= 2

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Peak discharge = ((171239x10^-3)/(10x60x60))x2 = 0.095 -------- cumecs
Now, assuming the flow velocity through the pressure pipe to be 1.5m/sec
Area of the pipe required, A=Q/V = peak discharge/1..5= 0.095/1.5= 0.0633 ----- m2

Diameter of the pipe required = D = √(𝐴𝑥4) ÷ 𝜋 = √(0.063𝑥4) ÷ 𝜋 =0.28m

=280mm=300mm
Gradient required is given by
V= 0.849xCxR^0.63x S^0.54 ; 1.5= 0.849*140*S
Assume C=140 for PVC pipe and R=D/4
Gradient, S = 6.25*10^-3=1:160
• Design of sub-mains
Discharge in each sub-main=peak discharge/2= 0.095/2 =0.0475 ------ say Q1 cumecs
Area of the sub-main pipes,A1=Q1/V= 0.0475/1.5=0.0316m^2

Diameter of the sub-main pipe, D1= √𝐴1𝑥4 ÷ 𝜋=√0.0316𝑥4 ÷ 𝜋 = 0.2m

Gradient required is given by
V=0.849xCxR^0.63xS^0.54
Assume C=140 for PVC pipe and R=D1/4
Gradient, S=0.01=1:100
• Design of Branches

Discharge in branch pipe, Q2=Avg. number in each house X per capita demand
= 6X135lpcd
= 810 lpcd
Area of the branch pipe, A2 = Q2/V= 9.375*10^-6/1.5 = 6.25*10^-6

Diameter of the branch pipe, D2 = √𝐴2𝑥4/𝜋

= √6.23𝑥10−3𝑥4/𝜋
= 0.00282m=3mm
Gradient required is given by
V=0.849xCxR^0.63xS^0.54
Assume C=140 for PVC pipe and R=D2/4
Gradient, S=1.34= 1:10

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• SEWER LINES

Total water supplied = 1712391 lts/day

Waste water supplied = 80% of water supply
= 0.8 x 1712391 lts/day
= 1369912.8 lts/day
Peak discharge = 2 x waste water produced in m3/sec
= 0.0317m3/sec

• Over head tank

Design of pump for lifting water from treatment plant to overhead tank:
Maximum demand = 1.8 x Y lts = (1.8xYx10^-3)/(24x60x60) = (1.8x951328x10^-
3)/(24x60x60)= 0.0198 -------- say M cumecs
Assuming that the pumps are working for 4 hours a day to supply full days demand
Maximum draft required, Q= (Mx24)/4 = (0.0198x24)/4 = 0.1189-----say N cumecs
Now, assuming the flow velocity through the pressure pipe to be 1.5m/sec
Area of the pipe required, A= Q/V = N/1.5= 0.1189/1.5 = 0.0792------m2

Diameter of the pipe required = D = √𝐴𝑥4 ÷ 𝜋 = √0.0792𝑥4 ÷ 𝜋 = 0.3176

Head loss due to friction can be calculated using Darcy-Weisbach formula
Hl= flv^2/2g D = (0.02*500*1.5^2)/(2*9.81*0.3176) =3.611m
Hl= head loss in meters
L = length of pipes in meters
D= diameters of the pipe in meters
V= mean velocity of flow through the pipes in m/sec
G= acceleration due to gravity= 9.8m/sec2
f= dimension less friction factor varying b/w 0.02 (for new smooth pipe)to 0.075(for old
rough pipe)
Total head lift required = the difference in elevation or head difference between treatment
plant and supply tank +head loss due to friction
= 4.585+3.611 = 8.196m
Break horse power of pumps = ω q H/0.735n =9.81Qh/0.735n=
9.81x.1189x8.196/0.735x0.8=16.26hp

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Water horse power of pumps = ω q H/0.735
= 9.81Qh/0.735
= 9.81x.1189x.9573/0.735
= 13.01hp
Design of supply tank or over head tank dimension:
Capacity of supply tank or over head tank with 3 meters height
Therefore. T its = (3424782/1000) = 3424.782m3
Let us assume a rectangular over head tank with 3meters height
Therefore, volume of the tank = L x B x H
W.K.T for a rectangular tank L= 2B
Then, volume of the tank = 2BxBx3
B= 23.89=24m
L= 48m
WATER TREATMENT PLANT:
Design of pump for lifting water from bore well to treatment plant:
Since the pump has to lift the water from bore well to treatment plant discharge should be
three times the maximum demand i.e 3Z lts
Let us assume that the bore well yields 3 inch i.e 9329 lts of water per hour at depth of 800 ft.
Since the discharge required = (3xZx10^-3)/(24x60x60)
= (3x1712391x10^-3)/(24x60x60)= 0.0594 say d cumecs
Hence 2 bore-wells are required and the submersible pumps are working for 13hours a day to
supply full days demand
Maximum discharge from each pumps =dx24/13 = 0.0594x24/13 = 0.1096 --- say cumecs
Now, assuming the flow velocity through the pressure pipe to be 2 m/sec
Area of the delivery pipe = Q/V = e/2 = 0.1096/2 = 0.0548 ------- say f m2

Diameter pf the delivery pipe = √𝑓𝑥4 ÷ 𝜋 = √0.0548𝑥4 ÷ 𝜋 = 0.2641

Deliver head = staging height + pipe head

= 8.25+1.0=9.25m
The static head is 800ft i.e 244m

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Head loss due to friction in the delivery pipe can be calculated using Darcy-weisbach formula
Hl = fLv^2/2gD = 0.02X40X2^2/2x9.81x0.2641 = 0.6175
Hl = head loss in meters
L = length of pipe in meters
D = diameter of the pipes in meters
V = mean velocity of flow through the pipes in m/sec
G = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec^2
F = dimensionless friction factor varying b/w 0.02 (for new smooth pipe) to 0.075 (for old
rough pipes)
Total head lift required = delivery head + static head + head loss due to friction in delivery
pipe
= 9.25+244+0.62=253.87=254m
𝜔𝑞𝐻 9.81𝑥0.1096𝑥254
Break horse power of pump = = = 464.446hp
0.735𝑛 0.735𝑥0.8

Water horse power of pump = 𝜔𝑞𝐻 = 9.81𝑥0.1096𝑥254 = 371.55hp

0.735 0.735

DESIGN OF TREATMENT PLANT UNITS

Design of screens
Assume that the velocity through the screens is not allowed to exceed 0.8m/s
Net area of screen openings required = max 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐𝑠 ÷ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

= 0.1096 = 0.0548sqm
2

Using rectangular steel bars in the screen, having 1cm width and placed at 5cm clear spacing,
we have
The gross area of the screen required = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑥6 = 0.0548𝑥6 = 0.0657 ----say, sqm
5 5

Assuming that the screen bars are placed at 60° to the horizontal, we have
0.0657
𝑠 𝑠
The gross area of the screen = = /2 = √3
= 0.0759… ..... m2
sin 60° √3 2

Design of rectangular sedimentation tank with mechanical sludge removal arrangements

Quantity of water to be treated in 24hours = 1ltrs/day =1728--------say Z cum/day
Assume a detention period of 6hours and the velocity of flow through the tank as 20cm per
minute
Therefore, quantity of water to be treated during the detention period of 6hours
𝑧.6 1728𝑥6
= = = 432cum
24 24

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Velocity of flow to be maintained through the tank reqd = velocity of flow x detention period
= 0.2x (6x60) = 72m
Cross sectional area of the tank required = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 432 = 6sqm
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 72

Assume the water depth in the tank as 4m

Therefore, width of the tank = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘= 432 = 108
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑖.𝑒 4𝑚 4

Using a free board of 0.5m, the over all depth = water depth +0.5m = 4+0.5=4.5m
Design of filter unit:
Since it is a small village slow sand filter with 6 filter beds is enough to treat the water
Assume rate of filtration as 180lit/hr/sq.m
Therefore, rate of filtration per day = (180x24) = 4320litres/sq.m/day
Total surface area of filters reqd. = (max 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 )/(𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦)

= 1712391 = 396.38… ..... sqm

4320

Now, 6units are to be used, out of them, one is to be kept as stand by and hence only 5 units
should provide the necessary area of filter required
Therefore, the area of each filter unit= 1 𝑥𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑. =1x396.38 = 79.27sqm
5 5

Now, if L is the length and B is the breadth of each unit, then assume that L = 2B;
B=6.3m
L=12.6m
Let us assume that 0.3ppm of chlorine is required for disinfection and the bleaching powder
contains 30% chlorine
Therefore, amount of chlorine required daily (based on annual average consumption)
= chlorine dose x max. daily demand
= 0.3x max daily demand
= 0.3x 1712391=513717.3
Since the chlorine content in bleaching powder is 30% then 30kg of chlorine is contained in
100kg of bleaching powder
Therefore, amount bleaching powder required daily (based on annual average consumption)
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑𝑥100 813717.3𝑥100
= = = 1712391kg
30 30

Annual consumption of bleaching powder

=amount of bleaching powder required daily x365 = 1712391x365= 625022715

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SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Ghatti subramanya is a small village with less population, hence a low cost treatment plant
like oxidation pond is proposed.
Design of oxidation pond
Depth of pond = 2.5mt
Organic loading = 150kg/day/hec
BOD of untreated sewage = 200mg/l
Efficiency of treatment plant = 90%
BOD of treated effluent = 0.1x BOD of untreated sewage = 0.1x200 = 20
Total quantity of water supplied to the village = 1712391 lts/day
Waste water produced = 80% of water supply
= 0.8x 1712391lts/day
= 1369912lts/day = 0.016cum/sec = 1369912x10^-3 cum/day
Effluent load = (waste water produced x BOD of untreated sewage )/(1000*1000)
= 3.1710*10^-6kgs/day
Area required = BOD load/organic loading = 200/150 = 1.33hectares = 13300sqmts
Assuming to pond, area of each point = total area in sq.m/2 = 13300/2=6650
Assume length = 50mts
Width = 133mts
Check for detention period:
Detention period = volume of tank/quantity
= (50*133*2.5)cum/(1369912*10^-3)cum/day
= 12.13days.

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CONCLUSION
• The goal of a new integrated approach to planning the use and management of land
resource is to make optimal and inform choices and the further uses of the land. It
will be achieved through interactions and negotiates b/w planners, stake holders and
discussion makers at national, provincial and local levels .it will be on the basis of
efficient, comprehensive data gathering and processing in a appropriate storage and
retrieval system, through a network of institution.
• The smooth flow of the resulting evaluation of the data will be out put in an
understandable, user friendly format.
• The plan will enable all stake holders to co-decide and the sustainable, equitable and
economic use of the land and follow it through successful implementation

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DSATM. Dept of civil engineering