c H A p T E R

Resistive Circuits

Chapter Contents Objectives

Overview. 34 Upon leaming the material presented in this chapter. you should
2- 1 Ohm's Law. 34 be able 10:
TD3 Superconductivity, 38
I. Apply Ohm's law and explain the basic prnpenies of
2-2 C ircuit Topology, 40
piClOresistivilYand superconductivity.
2-3 Kirchhoff's L1W, 43
2-4 Equivalent C ircuits. 48 2. Define lenns used in circuit topology. s uch as node.
1'B4 Resistors as Sensors. 56 extraordinary node. loop. path. and mesh.
2-5 Wyc-Dclta (Y- .1.) Transfonnation. 58 J . State Ki rchhotrs current and voltage laws: apply them to
2-6 The Wheatstone Bridge. 61 resistive circui ts.
2-7 Application Note: Linear versus Nonlinear i-v 4. Define wh:u is meant when two circuits are said to be
Relationships. 62 ··equi valent.·'
2-8 Introducing Muhisim. 66 5. Combine resistors in series and in parallel: apply voltage
Chapler 2 Relationships, 73 and current di vision.
Chapler Highlights. 73
6. Apply source transfonnation between voltage and current
Glossary of Imponant Tenns. 74
sources.
Problems. 74
7. Apply V- A trans(onnalions.
8. Describe the operation of the Wheatstone-bridge circuit
and how it is used to measure small deviations.
9. Use Muhisim 10 analY1..e simple circui ts.
34 CHA PTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Overview
Ta ble 2- 1: Conducti vilY and resisti vilYof some common malerials
TIle study of any field of inquiry Slant with nomenclature: at 2O"C.
defining the tenns specific to that field. Thai is exactly what
we did in the preceding chapter. We inuoduced and defined l\'1attrial ColKludh·ity q RtSistivity p
electric current, VQltage. power. open and closed circuits. and (Slm) (O-m)
dependent and independent voltage and current sources, among Cond uctors
others. Now. we are ready to acquire OUT first set of circuil- Silnr 6.17 )( 107 1.62 )( 10- &
analysis tools. which will enable us to ana1yze a variety of Copper 5.81 )( 107 1.72 )( 10- &
different types o f circuits. We will limit our discussion to Gold 4. 10 )( 107 2.44 )( 10- &
resistive circuits. namely those circuits containing only sources A.luminum 3.82 )( 107 2.62 )( IO- B
and resistors. (In future chapters. we will extend those tools to Jron 1.03 )( 10 9.7 1 )( IO- B
'
circuits containing capacitors, inductors. and other elements.) Mertu ry (liqu id) 1.04 )( UP 9.58 )( IO- B
Our new toolbox will include three simple, yet plwerful1aws -
Semlcondudors
Ohm's Jaw and Kirchhoff's vollage and current laws-and
Carbon (graphite) 7 . 14 )( 104 1.40 )( IO- j
several circuit simplification and transfonnation techniques.
I)u re ge rma nium 2. 13 0.47
Pu re silicon 4.35 )( 10- 4 2.30 )( 103
2-\ Ohm's Law Insula tors
Pape r ... 10- 10 ... 10 ]0
TIle conductivity u of a material is a measure of how easily G lass .... 10- 12 ... 10 ]2
electrons can drift through the material when an external voltage Tefton ... 3.3 )( 10- 13 ..... 3 x 10 12
is applied across it. Materials are classified as conductors Porulal n ...... 10- ]4 ..... 10 ]4
(primarily metals). s~miconductors , or di~/~ctrics (insulators) Mka ..... IO- ]j .... IOU
according to the magnitudes of their conductivities. Tabulated Polystyrene ...... 10- 16 ...... 10 16
values of u expressed in unilS of siemens per meter (S/m) are .' used quam ...... 10- 11 .... 10 11
given in Table 2-1 for a select group of materials. lbe siemen is
the inverse of the ohm, S = 1/ n. and the inverse of u is called
the r~sisti"iIy p.
I and (b) the shape and size of me device. For a longitudinaJ
p=- (!l-m), (2. 1)
a resistor (Fig. 2- J). R is given by
which is a measure of how well a material imp~d~s me flow
of current through it. The conductivity of most metals is on I I
me order of 107 Slm. which is 20 or more orders of magnitude R =-=p- (0), (2.2)
aA A
greater man the cOnductivity of typical insulators. Common
semiconductors. such as si licon and gennanium. fall in the in-
between range on the conductivity scale. where t is the lengm of the device and A is its cross-sectional
The values of u and p given in Table 2-1 are specific area. In addition to ilS direct dependence on me resistivity P.
10 room tempenuure at 20°C. In general , the conductivity
R is directly proportional to t . which is the length of me path
of a metal increases with decreasing temperature. At thai the current has to How through, and inversely proportional
very low temperatures (in the neighborhood of absolute
zero). some conductors become sup~rconduclors , because
I
their conductivities become practically infinite and their
corresponding resistivities approach zero. To learn more about
superconductivity. refer to Technology Brief 3 on page 38. a

2-1.1 Resistance I
R- -
oA
1be resistance R of a device incorporates two factors: (a) the
inherent bulk propeny of ilS material to conduct (or impede) flgu re 2-1: Longitudinal resistor of conductivilY o . length t. and
current, represented by me conductivity a (or resistivity pl. cross-sectional area A.
2-1 OHM ' S LAW 35

Table 2·2: DilUTleter d of wires. according to the American Wire

Gauge (AWG) system.

AWG Size Designation Diamt>ter d (nun)

o 8.3 "·".1 Rh=181
2 6.5 Chip resistors
4 5.2
6 4. 1
10 2.6
14 1.6 /
18 1.0
20 0.8

to A, because the larger A is, the easier it is for the electrons to

drift through the material.
Every element of an electric circuit has a certain resistance
associated with it. This even includes the wires used to "-Igure 2-2: Phocograph of various types of resiSton.
connect devices to each other, but we usually treat them like
zero-resistance segments because their resistances are so much
smaller than the resistances of the other devices in the circuit. To Resistive elements used in electronic circuilS are fabricated in
illustrate with an example, let us consider a lO-cm-long segment many different sizes and shapes to suit the intended application
of one of the wire sizes commonly found in circuit boards, such and requisite circuit architecture. Discrete resistors usually are
as the AWG- 18 copper wire. According to Table 2-2, which cylindrical in sbape and made of a carbon composite, examples
lists the diameter d for various wire sizes as specified by the of which are shown in Fig. 2-2. Hybrid and miniaturized circuits
American Wire Gauge (AWG) system. the AWG-IS wire has a use film-shaped metal or carbon resistors. In integrated circuilS.
diameterd = I mm. Using the values specified for t and d and resistive elements are fabricated through a diffusion process
the value for p of copper given in Table 2·', we have (see Technology Brief 7 on page 135).
For some metal oxides, the resistivity p exhibits a strong
l l sensitivity to temperature. A resistor manufactured of such
R:;:: p A :;:: P 1r(dj 2)2 materials is called a thermistor (Table 2-3), and it is used
for temperature measurement, temperalUre compensation. and
172 0-8 0. 1
=. x J x 1r(0.5 x 10 3)2 related applications. Another interesting type of resistor is
the piezoresistor. which is used as a pressure sensor in many
= 2.2 x 10- 3 n household appliances. automotive systems, and biomedical
= 2.2 mn. devices. More coverage on piezoresistivity is available in
Technology Brief 4 on page 56.
Thus. R is on the order of milliohms. If the wire segment Certain applications. such as volume adjustment on a radio.
connects to circuit elements with resistances of ohms or larger. may call for the use of a resistor with variable resistance.
ignoring the resistance of the wire would have no significant The rheostat and the potentiometer are two standard types of
impact on the overall behavior of the circuit.
1be preceding justification should be treated with some
degree of caution. While it is true that a piece of wire
may be treated like a short circuit in the majority of circuit Table 2-3: Common resistor tenninology.
configurations. there are cenain situations for which such an
assumption may not be valid. One obvious example is when Thernlislor R sensitive to temperature
the wire is very long. as in the case of a multi·kilometer I'ie:roresistor R sensitive to pressure
long electric power-transmission cable. Another is when \'ery Rheostat 2-tenninal variable resistor
thin wires or channels with micron·size diameters are used in l'otentiomeler 3-tenninal variable resistor
microfabricated circuits.
36 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE C IRCUITS

Tenninal 1 Movable 1 Movable

wIper wiper

TRI
R~
I T
R~
I J

,
1 1 - ,~

;~

2
Tcnninal 2
1
Linear region
(a) Rheostat (b) Potentiometer
.,' Il u re 2-4: ;-11 response of a typical resisuX" includes a linear region
Hgurt 2·3: (a) A rheostat is used 10 SCI the resistance bc:1",:een eJltcnding between -imax and i mu .
terminals I and 2 at any value between zero and Rmu ; (b) the wiper
in a potentiometer divides the resistance Rmu among Ro and RD_

An idealli"ear resistor is o ne whose resistance R is constant

variable resistors in common usc. The rheostat (Fig. 2-3(3» and independentofthc magnitudeofthecurrenl Howing through
is a two-tenninal device with one of ils tenninals connected 10 it in which case its ;-p respOtlSe is a straight line. In practice,
one end of a resistive track and the other terminal connected 10 the i-v response of a real linear resistor is indeed approximately
a movable wiper. Movement of the wiper across the resistive linear, as illustrated in Fig. 2-4, so long as i remains wilhin the
track. through mlation of a shaft, can change the resistance linear regio" defined by -i max to i mu . Outside this range. the
between the two terminals from (theoretical ly) zero resistance re sponse deviates from the straight-line model. When we use
10 the full resistance value of the track. Thus. if the 10lal Ohm's law as expressed by Eq. (2.3), we tacitly assume that the
resistance of the track is Rmu. the rheostat can provide any resistor is being used in its linear range of operation.
resistance between zero and RrfW,_ Some resistive devices exhibit highly nonlinear ;-1}
The potentiometer .is a three-Ienninal device. Terminals J
characteristics. These include diode elements and light-bulb
and 2 in Fig. 2-3(b» are connected to the two ends of the
filaments. among others. Unless noted otherwise. the common
track (with tOial resistance Rmu ) and tenninal 3 is connected
use of the term ~s;stor in circuit analysis and design usually
to a movable wiper. When tenninal 3 is at the end next to
refers to the linear resistor exclusively.
tenninal I, the resistance between tenninals I and 3 is zero
TIle How of current in a resistor leads to power dissipatio n
and lhat between tenninals 2 and 3 is Rmu. Moving tenninal 3
in the form of heat (or the combination of heat and light in the
away from lenninall increases the resistance between tenninals
case of a light bulb's filament). Using Eq. (2.3) in Eq. ( 1.9)
1 and 3 and decreases the resistance between tenninals 2 and 3.
provides the followin g expression for the power p dissipated in
a resistor:
2- 1.2 i-v Characteri stic
P= . = I·' R
IV (W). (2.4)
Based on the results of his experiments on the nature of
conduction in circuits . German physicist Georg Simon Ohm
(1787- 1854) fonnulaled in 1826 the i-v relationship for 1bc pO'l+'er raJing o f a resistor defines the maximum continuous
a resistor. which has become known as Ohm's law . He power level that the resistor can dissipate without gelling
discovered lhat the voltage v across a resistor is directly damaged. Excessive heat can cause melting, smoke. and even
proportional to the current j Howing through it, namely fi ....

v = iR. (2.3) Example 2-1: de Motor

A 12-V car battery is connected via a 6-m-Iong. twin-wire cable

with the resistance R being the proportio nality factor.
to a dc motor that drives the wiper blade on the rear window.
TIle cable is copper AWG- IO and the motor exhibits to the rest
In compliance with the passive sign convention, the
of the circuit an equivalent resistance Rm = 2 Q . Determine:
polarity of v is such lhat the current enters the resistor (a) the resistance o f the cable and (b) the fraction of the power
at the "+" side. contributed by the battery that gets delivered to the motor.
2- 1 OHM 'S LAW 37

Wire (6-m long) Rm (molor and the fraction of P delivered to the load (motor) is
+l .../ resistance)
12 V -'1 . Pm 69. 15
Wire Fracuon :;;: p :;;: 70.56 :;;: 0.98 or 98 percent.
Car battery Re - resistance of both wires Thus. 2 percent of the power is dissipated in the cable .

•' Igure 2-5: Circuit for Example 2-1.

Review Question 2-1 : How does the magnitude of the
conductivity of a metal, such as copper, compare with
Solution : The circuit described in the problem statement is
represented by Fig. 2 -5. that of a typical insulator. such as mica? What is a
superconductor, and why might it be useful?
(a) With l = 12 m (total for twin wires).
8
p = I .72 x lO- Q_m for copper, A = tr(d j 2)2, and
Review Question 2-2 : What is piezoresistivity, and how
d = 2.6 mm for AWG- IO. the cable resistance Re is is it used?
l
Re=P- Review Question 2-3 : What is meant by the linear region
A of a resistor? Is it related to its power rating?
-8 12
= 1.72 x 10 x ( 3 0
trl. x l ')'
~ 0.04 <2 . Exercise 2-1 : A cylindrical resistor made of carbon has
a fX>wer rating of 2 W, If its length is to cm and its
(b) The total resistance in the circuit is eqll3.1 to the sum of the circular cross section has a diameter of I mm, what is
cable and motor resistances. (In a later section, we will learn the maximum current thaI can flow througll the resistor
that the resistance o f two resistors connected in series is simply without damaging it?
equaJto the sum of their resistances.) Hence.
Answer: 1.06 A. (See 0 )
R = Re + Rm
~ 0 . 04 + 2 Exercise 2-2: A rectangular bar made of aluminum has a
current of 3 A flowing through it along its length. If its
~ 2.04 <2 .
length is 2.5 m and its square cross section has l-em sides,
Consequently. the current Howing through the circuit is how much power is dissipated in the bar at 200C?

V Ans",er: 5.9 mW. (See ()

1 =-
R
Exercise 2~3 : A certain type of diode exhibits a nonlinear
12
relationship between v- the voltage across it-and j -
2.04 the current entering into its (+) voltage tenninal. Over its
~ 5.88 A. operational voltage range (0 to I V), the current is given
by
and the fX>wer contributed by the battery P and the fX>wer
i :;;: O,5v 2 forO < v<IV.
delivered to the motor Pm are:
Detennine how the diode's effective resistance vanes
P = IV with v and calculate its value at v = 0, 0.01 V, 0.1 V,
= 5.88x I2 0 ,5 V. and 1 V.

= 70.56 W R
"
0 00
2 0,01 V 200 <2
Answer: R = -,
Pm = 12Rm 0.1 V 20 <2
" 0.5 V 4<2
= (5.88)2 x 2 IV 2<2
~ 69. 15 W. (See 0 )
38 TECHNOLOGY BRIEF 3: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Technology Brief 3: Superconductivity

When an electric voltage is applied across two points in a conductor, such as copper or silver, current flows between
them . The relationship between the voltage difference V and the current I is given by Ohm's law, V = JR, where R is the
resistance of the conducting malerial between the two points. It is helpful to visualize the electric current as a fluid of
electrons flowing through a dense forest of sturdy metal atoms, called the laHice. Under the influence of the electric field
(induced by the applied voltage), the electrons can attain very high instantaneous velocities, but their overall forward
progress is impeded by the frequent collisions with the lattice atoms. Every time an electron collides and bounces off
an atom, some of that electron's kinetic energy is transferred to the atom, causing the atom to vibrate--which heats
up the material---and causing the electron 10 slow down. The resistance R is a measure of how much of an obstacle
the resistor poses to the flow of current. as well as a measure of how much heat it generates for a given current.
Can a conductor ever have zero resistance? The answer is mosl definitely yes! In 1911 J the Dutch physicist Heike
Kamerlingh Onnes developed a refrigeration technique so powerful that it could cool helium down low enough to
condense into liquid form at 4.2 K (0 kelvin = - 373" C). lnto his new liquid helium container, he immersed (among other
things) mercury; he soon discovered that the resistance of a solid piece of mercury a14.2 K was zero! The phenomenon,
which was completely unexpected and not predicted by classical physics, was coined superconductivity. According
to quantum physics, many materials experience an abrupt change in behavior (called a phase transition) when cooled
below a certain critlcsl temperature Te .
Superconductors have some amazing properties. The current in a superconductor can persist with no external
voltage applied. Even more interesting , currents have been observed to persist in superconductors for many years
without decaying; in fact, some theoretical estimates predict that superconductor currents can persist for periods longer
than the estimated lifetime of the universe! When a magnet is brought close to the surface of a superconductor, the
currents induced by the magnetic field are mirrored exactly by the superconductor (because the superconductor's
resistance is zero) and the magnet is repelled (Fig. TF3-1) . This property has been used to demonstrate magnetiC

Figure TF3-1 : The Meissner effect, or strong diamagnetism, seen between a

high-temperature superconductor and a rare earth magnet. (Courtesy of PacifIC
Northwest National laboratory.)
TECHNOLCXJY BRIEF 3: SUPERCONDUCfIVITY 39

levitation and is the basis of some super-fast maglev trains (Fig. TF3-2) being developed around the world. The same
phenomenon is used in the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines that hospitals use to perform 3-0 scans
of organs and tissues (Fig. TF3-3) and in Superconducting QUantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) to examine
brain activity at high resolution.
Superconductivity is one of the last frontiers in solid-state phySics. Even though the physics of low-temperature
superconductors (like mercury, lead, niobium nitride, and others) is now fairly well understood, a different class of hlgh-
temperature superconductors still defies oomplete theoretical explanation. This class of materials was discovered in
1986 when Alex MOiler and Georg Bednarz, at IBM Research Laboratory in Switzerland, created a ceramic compound
that superconducted at 30 K. This discovery was followed by the discovery of other ceramics with even higher Tc
values; the now-famous YBCO ceramic discovered at the University of Alabama-Huntsville (1987) has a Tc of 92 K.
and the wor1d record holder is a group of mercury-cuprate compounds with a Tc of 138 K (1993). New superconducting
materials and conditions are still being found; carbon nanotubes, for example, were recently shown to have aTe of
15 K (Hong Kong University, 2001). Are there higher-temperature superconductors? What theory will explain Ihis
higher-temperature phenomenon? Can so-called room-temperature superconductors exist? For engineers (like you)
the challenges are j ust beginning: How can these materials be made into useful circuits. devices. and machines? What
new designs will emerge? The race is onl

Figure TF3-2: Magie'll train. (Courtesy 01 Central Japan Railway Company.)

Figure TF3-3: Magnetic Resonance Imagi ng machine.

(Courtesy GE Healthcare.)
40 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

2- 1.3 Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called conducUlnce, Table 2-4:
Term Definition
I Ordinary 'lOde An electrical connection point that
G ~­ (S). (2.5)
R connects to o nl y two ele ments.

Exlraordinary An electrical connection point that

and its unit is the siemen (S). In terms of G. Ohm's law can be connects to three or more elements,
"ode
rewritten in the form
"
,. :;; -;;; Gv. (2.6)
Bra"ch Trace between two consecutive
nodes with only one element be·
R
tween them.
and the expression for power becomes
Path Continuous sequence of branches
with no node encountered more than
p=iv =Gv 2 (W). (2.7)
once.

Extraordinary Path between two adjacent extraor-

p"'h dinary nodes.
2-2 Circuit Topology
Loop Closed path with the same start and
The term topology refers 10 a branch of mathematics concerned end node.
with the propenies of geometrical configurations. The study
of the geometrical properties of electrical circuits is the subject
J"dependenlloop Loop containing one or more
branches not contained in any other
of circuit topology, also called netr.'ork topology. The logical
independent loop.
approach for introducing any new topic is to start by providing
clear and concise defi nitions for the particular set of terms Mesh Loop that encloses no other loops.
constituting ils vocabulary. The vocabulary of circuit topology
includes terms like node, branch. and loop, as well as other E lements that share the same current.
derivatives. Before we proceed with describing these terms
and the relationships between them, we should note that our
',,·parallel Elements that share the same
voltage.
treatmenl will be limited 10 planar circuilS. A planar circuit
is defined as a circuit mat can be drawn schematica1ly in two-
dimensional space such mat no two branches have to cross one • A path is any continuous sequence of branches. provided
another. Greater elaboration of what that means is given in that no one node is encountered more than once. A simple
Section 2-2.3. example is path NI to N2 through R •. Altemative paths
between the same two nodes include: 1I,- CI-R2: IIs- R5-
2-2. 1 Nomenclature C2-L; and IIs- R5-R4- R).

A reference summary of key tenns used in circuit topology is

avai lable in Table 2-4, The planar circuit shown in Fig. 2-6 Extraordinary node
shall serve to explain the definitions in more delail. r---M---~ N

• A node is an electrical connection point for two or more

elements (devices). An ordinary node connects to only
two elements, whereas an extraordinary node connects to
three or more elements. Figure 2-6 COn!ains seven nodes. =:= c,
of which Nt . N), N5. and N6 are ordinary nodes. and the
remaining three (N2. N4.llnd N7} are extraordinary nodes.

• A branch is the trace between two consecutive nodes R,

containing only one clemen! between them. That is. a
branch conlains one and only one e lemen!. Figure 2-6 Figure 2·6: Cin:uil with seven nodes. of whil;h three are 6traoroinary
includes nine elements: hence. it includes nine branches. nodes (N2 . Not. and N7).
2-2 CIRCU IT TOPOLOGY 41

Originallme graph
.---+--
.'
• •
.' -
- - - - - - - - ------,
.'. ........................................
_ . N,
. .. . .. . .. . .. . ... ..... .... ... ... .. . .. . ....• '.•
-..Li
;-; Loop 3 ";•
N",-_~Loop~~;.:6----~N~2i_+~~i~============~~ .
... _ .~I ..................... ...' :
.' ............... .............. . .. -:-....................'.
Loop 4 N,
{ • : OJ
••
• • •
•• ••
••
• •• •
•
•• Loop I Loop 2 •
•• ••
Path - • • •• •
••
~ ~ t' - - _ - - / , • •

,. ••• •. . .. . .. . .... ... .. .... . •. •• .....~ ..'.-.-

..-.-..-.-..-.-..-.-.--.~.,..•" .'''..
• •
:• :•
•' ••.. ......... . ....... ..... •.• •
... ............. ... ...... .. . ---J.
...........
' _.'
................ .. ..... ... ...... . . ........... .' - ..
\. N,
(a) Extraordinary path
, I
Redrawn line graph
N,
N,

Loop I N) Loop 2

i.
N,
Loop 3

(b)

"' Igu re 2·7: (a) Linear &mPh (circuit with suppressed circuit elements) COIltaining six loops. of which three are independent; (b) redrawing the
circuit changes the loops but does ROC change the circuit.

• An ~x'roordj"Qry plJlh is a path between two extraordinary suppressed the circuit e lements, retained all of the nodes,
nodes, provided that no other extraordinary node exists and replaced the elements with simple lines. The linear
along that path. 1be extraordinary nodes in Fig. 2-6 are graph, which is a useful tool for demonstrating certain
nodes N2. N4. and N7. Hence. the extraordinary paths in concepts without getting distracted with the specifics o f
the circuit are: (I) N2 to N4 through R2-C1. (2) N2 10 the elements in the circuit. shows thai the circuit contains
N4 through RI-V, . (3) N4 to N7 through R:,. (4) N2 to N7 six loops. In clockwise direction, these are: (I) Loop I:
through L-C2. and (5) N2 to N, through Rl- ~ . NI-N2-Nl- N4-NJ, (2) Loop 2: N2-N:,-N,-N4-NJ-N2.
(3) Loop 3: N2-N6-N7-N:,-N2. (4) Loop 4: NI-N2-
• A loop is a closed path such that the Slart and end node is
N:,- N7-N4-NI. (5) Loop 5: N2-N6-N,-N4-NJ-N2. and
one and the same. The drawing shown in Fig. 2-7(a) is a
(6) Loop 6: NI-N2-N6-N,-N4-NI.
Jjn ~aT graph of the circuit in Fig. 2-6, wherein we have
42 C HAPTER 2 RESISTIVE C IRCUITS

• An independent loop is a loop that contains (al least) one morr dedus arr said to ~ conn'Cl~d in series if the same
or more branches thai are nOI part of any other independent currrntftows through all oflh~m. requiring that all nodes along
loop. A circuit may contain several combinations of the path containing the in-series elements be ordinary nodes.
independent loops. Loops I, 2. and 3 in Fig. 2-7(a) Mllitiple elemellts connected in parallel share the same l)(Iir
are indeed all independent loops. because each contains of nodes, thereby hailing the same voltage across them. In
al least one branch that is not contained in the other Fig. 2-6. the circuit contains four combinations of in-series
two. Moreover, because those three loops contain all connections, namely: vl-R .. R2-C1. L-C2, and R)-R4. 1lle
of the branches in the circuit. none of loops 4 , 5, and 6 in-series combination vl-R 1 is in parallel with the combinalion
is an independent loop. Alternative group choices of CI-R2. Similarly. R]- R" is in parallel with L-C2.
independent loops include: ( I) loops I. 3. and 4 , (2) loops
I, 2. and 5. (3) loops 1.2. and 6, and so on, but in al1 cases,
the total number of independent loops characterizi ng the Exercise 2-4: Which e lements in the circuit of Fig. E2.4
circuit is exactly three. are connected (a) in-series or (b) in-parallel?

• A mesh is a loop that encloses no other loop. Hence, for the R,

specific way in which the circuit was drawn in Fig. 2·7(a), R, R,
the only loops that are also meshes are loops I, 2, and 3.

A planar circuit may be drawn in many different ways, as v, + R. R,

-
a result of which the loops and meshes may be different for
the different representations. To illustrate with an example.
the linear graph shown in Fig. 2-7(b) is a different (but Figure £2.4
equally acceptable) representation of the circuit in Fig. 2-6.
Comparison of the linear graph in pan (a) with that in part (b)
Answer: (a) none. (b) none. (See .o>
leads to the conclusion that loops I and 2 remain unchanged
(in teoos of the elements they contain) but loops 3 of the two Exercise 2-5: The switch in the circuit of Fig. E2.5 closes
representations do not contain the same elements. Nevenheless, at I = O. Which elements are in-series and which are in-
in both representations, the circuit contains exactly three paralJel at (a) I < 0 and (b) t > 07
meshes.
For any planar circuit or network composed of discrete R, RJ
I
elements. the number of bmnch,s b is related to the numlnr
of nodes n and the IIumbu of ;nd, p",dent loops lind by the 1- 0
v, + R,
following theorem: -
2
3
b = n + lind - 1. (2.8) R,
In the case of the circuit in Fig. 2-6, n = 7. lind = 3, and b = 9.
A simi lar expression applies to the relationship between the Figure [2.5
numbers of ~xtraordillary nod~s nn.. utmordinary paths Pu.,
and i"d~p,,,d~nt loops lind. Namely.
Answer: (a) til' RI. and R2 are all in series: Rs and R6
are in parallel with each other and with the shon circuit
Po. =n ex + lind -I. (2.9)
between nodes 2 and 3; (b) v. and RI are in series: R] and
R. are in series and their combination is in parallel with
As a check, Fig. 2-6 has three extraordinary nodes, so R2: Rs and R6 are in parallel with each other and with the
with l ind = 3 we have PH. = 5. The significance and use of shon circuit between nodes 2 and 3. (See .o>
Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) will become evident later when we apply
node and loop analysis to solve electric circuits.
2-2.3 Planar Circuits
2-2.2 In-Series and In-Parallel Connections
The relationships between branches. nodes. and loops
'The terms in-uri,s and in-pamll, t connections find extensive expressed by Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) are specific to planar circuits.
use in circuit analysis, deserving of specific note. Two or In fact, the planar-circuit condition shall be presumed to be
2·3 KIRCHHOFF'S LAwS 43

true throughoullhe material covered in this book. Hence, it is

important to be clear on what a planar circuit is and what it is
no"
A circuit is planar if it is possible 10 draw it on a two-
dimensional plane without having any two of its branches "0
~/
cross over or under one another.

If such a crossing is unavoidable. then the circuit is nonpJanar.

To clarify what we mean, we start by examining the circuit
in Fig. 2·8(a). An initial examination of the circuit topology
might suggest thai the circuit is nonplanar because the branches
containing resistors RJ and R4 appear to cross one another
without having physical contact between them (absence of a
solid dOl al crossover point). However, if we redraw the branch
containing R4 on the outside. as shown in configuration (b) of figure 2·9: Nonplanar circuit.
Fig. 2·8. we would then conclude that the circuit is planar after
all. and that is so because il is possible 10 draw it in a single
indeed nonplanar because no mailer how we might try to redraw
plane without crossovers. In contrasl, the circuit in Fig. 2-9 is
ii, it will always include at leasl o ne crossover of branches.

not a node
" Review Queltion 2-4 : What is the definition of a planar
circuil?

Review Question 2-5 : "An eXlrnordinary path is any path

between two eXlrnordinary nodes." This statement is not
quite correct. Why not?

Review Question 2~ : What is the difference between a

loop and a mesh?

(a) Original circuit

Exercise 2~ : A network has six extraordinary paths and

" eight nodes. of which three are extraordinary. How many
branches does it have?

Ans\o\'c.r: b = II . (See 0 )

" Exercise 2·7: Nodes I, 2, and 3 are all extraordinary

nodes. If resislor RI is connected between nodes I and 2.
R2 belween nodes I and 3, and R) between nodes 2 and 3.
which of the three resistors are connected in series and
which are connected in parallel?

" Ans"CI"! None. and none. (See O )

(b) Redrawn 2-3 Kirchhoff's Laws

Figu~ 2·8 : 1be branches containing R) and R4 in (a) (JPfN(Jr to Circuit theory-encompassi ng both analysis and synthesis-
cross over one another. but redrawing the circuit as in (b) a\'Oids the is built upon a foundation comprised of a s mall number of
crossover. thereby demonstIllling that the circuit is planar. fundamental laws. Among the cornerstones are Kirchhoff's
44 C HAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

c""tnt and .'ottage/aw,. Kirchhoff's laws, which constitute

Altemalh.ely, we can adopt the opposite convention,
the subject of this section. were introduced by the German
namely to assign a "+" 10 a current leaving the node and a
physicist Gustav Roben Kirchhoff ( 1824-1887) in 1847, some
.• -" to a current entering it.
21 years after a fellow German. Georg Simon Ohm, developed
his famous law.
Either convention is equally vaJid so long as it is applied
2-3. 1 Kirchhoff 's Curre nt Law (KCL) consistently to aJl currents entering and leaving the node.
By moving;2 and iJ 10 the right-hand side of Eq. (2. 11 ). we
As defined earlier. a node is a connection point for two or obtain the alternative fonn of KCL. namely
more brnnches. As such. it is not a real circuit element, and
therefore it cannot generate, store. or consume electric charge. (2. 12)
This assenion. which follows from the law of conservation
of charge. forms the basis of Kirchhoff's cu"ent law (KCL), wh.ich states that:
which slales that :
The total current enterin g a node must be equal to the total
TIle algebraic sum of the currents entering a node must c urre nt leaving it.
always be zero.

Example 2-2: KCl Equations

Mathematically. KCL can be expressed by the compact form :
Write the KCL equations at nodes 1 through 5 in the circuit of
Fig. 2-11.
N
I>.
.-1 ~O (KCL). (2.10)
2

where N is the tOial number of branches connected to the node,

and ill is the nth current.
V, r x-.<
Common convention is to assign a positive ..+,. sign to a
, '" 2A

current if it is entering the node and a negative "-" sign if

it is leaving it

For the node in Fig. 2-10,

(2. 11 )

where currentsI'I and"4 were assigned positive signs because

they are labeled in the figure as entering the node, and;2 and iJ
4
were assigned negative signs because they are leaving the node.

FIgure 2· 11: Circuit for Example 2-2.

Solution :

At node 1: +
- II - lJ 15 = 0
At node 2: 11 - /z+2=O
At node J : - 2 - /4 + 16 = 0
AI node 4: - 5 - 15 - 16 = 0
At node 5: I) + 14 + /z + 5 = 0
Figure 2- 10: Currents al a node.
 2·3 KJRC HHOFF'S LAWS 45

I Example 2-3: Applying KCl where N is the total number of branches in the loop and u" is
the nth vohageacross the nth branch. ApplicationofEq. (2.13)
If V4 . the vOltage across the 4-0 resistor in Fig. 2·12, is 8 V, requires the specification of a sign convention to use with it Of
determine I I and 12. those used in circuit analysis, the sign convention we chose to
use in this book consists of two steps.

~ /l
10
-
lz

2o
Sign Com entio n

• Add up the vollages in a systematic clockwise

movement around the loop.
lOA t 30
+ IOV • Assign a positive sign to the voltage across an element
- if the (+) side of that voltage is enoounlered first. and
- V4 + assign a negative sign if the (-) side is encountered
first.
2 40

.-igure 2· 12: Circuit for Example 2-3.

6V
Solulion: Applying Ohm's law, - +
V, 8
12 = - = - =2A.
4 4
At node I : 10 - /1 - /2 = 0 .
Hence, 4V +
I I = 10-12 = 10 - 2= 8A.

2-3.2 Kirchho ff's Voltage Law (KVL)

The vollage across an e lemen! represents the amount of energy Flgun! 2· 13: Qnc. loop circuit.
expended in moving positive charge from the negative tenninal
to the positive tenninal, thereby establishing a potential energy
difference between those temlinals. The law of COIIsen·otiOll
of energy mandales that if we move electric charge around a Hence, for the loop in Fig. 2- 13. star1ing at the negative tenninal
closed loop, starting and ending at exactly the same location. of the 4- V voltage source, application of Eq. (2.13) yields
the net gain or loss of energy must be zero. Since voltage is a
(2.14)
surrogate for potential energy:
An alternative statement of KVL is that Ihe tolal " oltage rise
TIle algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop oround a closed loop "wSI equal tile tOlal "ollage drop (Iroulld
must always be zero. Ihe loop. Recalling that a voltage rise is realized by moving
from the (- ) voltage tenninal to the (+) terminal across the
element, and voltage drop is the converse of that, the clockwise
This statement defines Kirchh off's ~'OlJage Inw ( KVL). In movement around the loop in Fig. 2·13 gives
equation form, KVL is given by
(2. 15)

which malhematically conveys the same infonnation contained

(KVL), (2. 13)
in Eq. (2.14).
Table 2·5 provides a. summary of KCL and K VL statements.
46 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

In
Ta ble 2-S: Equally valid. multiple statements of Kirchhoff's
Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's ¥ollage Law (KYL).

• Sum of all currents entering a node = 0

50 V +
- sn ( t 2A
Ii "" +- if entering: j =
H if leaving)
H_"

Sum of all cunents leaving a node = 0

KCL •
Ii = .,+~ if leaving; j = "-- if entering)
• Toea! of curn:n LS entering = Total of curn:nts
4n Ion
leaving

K VL
• Sum of \'oltages around closed loop = 0
I v = .,+,. if + side encou ntered first
in clockwise direction ) ,
In - -
. ----- ----- .. ,
+
• T()(ai voltage rise "" TOiaI voltage drop
•• +
~ I, •
•
+ • v, s n , t
•
SOV - • 2A
t 1 L, - 14 •
, ______ i ,•
Example 24: Apptylng KCL and KYl Equations L) " - - - - --
For the circuit in Fig. 2- I4{a), <a) identify all loops and write
their KVL equations. and then (b) solve for the voltage across
the 2·A current source.
- 4n
(b)
Ion
+ V,, -
-

Solution: Figure 2· 14: Circuit for EJ:ample 2-4 (a) befOl'e and (b) after labeling
currenlS and voltages.
Ca) The circuit contains three loops. as shown in Fig. 2-I4(b).
Before we proceed with writing KVL equations, we should
label the voltages across all elements. It is a1so helpful to
label the currents in the circuit and to make sure thai their
directions are consistenl with the voltage polarities across
Next, we apply KCL at node I which gives
passive elements (in a resistor, the current flows from the
positive voltage tenninal to the negati ve tenninal). In tenns
I I - h+2 = 0. (2.2 1)
of the voltages so labeled. the KVL equations are
We now have three equations with three unknowns , namely I I,
Loop I , -50+ VI + V2+ V) = 0. (2. 16)
h . and Ve. Thro ugh a simple subs titution process, we obtain
Loop 2: - V2+ Vc- V4 = 0, (2.17) the following solutions:
aoo I I = 4 A,
(2.18)
h =6 A.
We note that these three equations are not enlirely independent; ""d
in fact. the equation for loop 3 is equal to the s um of the
equations for loops I and 2.

(b) Using Ohm's law for the I-n, 4-n , and 5-n resistors and
recognizing that the current through the 100n resistor is 2 A,
Eqs. (2. 16) and (2. 17) can be: written as Review Question 2·7: Explain why KCL is (in essence)
a statement of the law of conservation of charge.
- 50+h +5 h + 4/ 1 =0, (2. 19)
Review Question 2-8: Explain why K VL is a statement
and
o f conservation of energy. What sign convention is used
- 5h + Ve - (10 x 2) = O. (2.20) with KVL?
2-3 KIRCHHOFF' S LAWS 47

Example 2~5 : Operational Amplifier Circuit Upon using Eq. (2.22) in Eq. (2.24) toeliminale i i, replacing
V2 in Eq. (2.25) with theexpression given by Eq . (2.23), and then
For the operational-amplifier equivalent circuit shown in grouping terms together to form simultaneous linear equations
Fig. 2- 15. (a) obtain an expression for uol vs-the ratio of the for;2 and i3. we have
output voltage to the signal voltage-in lenns of the indicated
circuit elements, and then (b) evaluate the ratio for RI = 15 kO.
R2 = 30 kO, RJ = 75 0 , Rj = 3 Mfl, and A = 106.
(2.27)

and
(2.28)

t;, ~;) +
S imultaneous solution of these two equations yields

+ -v; R)
,•
•-
v
+
R;
(2.29)
L, L, +
- Y2 : C: AVj
-

tlgure 2· 15: Operational amplifier equivalent circuit for Example (2.30)

2·5.

Upon insen.ing the expressions for i2 and i3 into Eq. (2.26) and
simplifying. we get

Solution: tIQ Rj( R3 - A R2)

(a) We begin by labeling currents at node I and writing the -~ (2.3 1)
v. ( Rt + Ri)( R2 + R3) + ( I + A) R ] Rj
KCL relalionship among them: namely,

(2.22)
(b) Recogniz.ing that the magnitudes of Rj and A are o n the
We also nOle that the dependent voltage source tI2 is given by o rder of lo6, lhoseof R I and R2 are on the order of lif ,and
RJ is on the order of 102 . it is easy to show that Eq. (2.3 1) can
(2.23)
be reduced to the approximate expression
Next, we write the KVL equations for the two loops as

(2.24 ) (2.32)
and
(2.25)
Gh'en that R2 = 30 kQ and RI = 15 kO. it follows thai
Our goal is to obtain an expression for tIQ in tellJ'lS of V, and
the indicated circuit elements. From the right-hand side of the
circuit,
vo ~ - 2.
(2.26) '.
which requires knowledge of the unknowns ;2 and i3.
48 C HAPTER 2 RESISTIVE C IRCU ITS

Circuit Equivalence
Exercise 2-8: If II = 3 A in Fig. E2.8, what is h ?

- Original - ..,
I, v,

-
I Rest of
circuit I,
~ I, segment
the circuit
2
+
10V
- Hl t 2A

Figure [l.8
Equlvalenl - ..,
'I v,
I Rest of

AnsM'cr: h = -\ A. (See 0 >

circuit
- I,

2
the circuit

Exercise 2·9: Apply KCL and KVL to find I, and 12 in

.' igure 2-16: Circuil equivalence requires thai the equivalent circuit
Fig. E2.9.
exhibit the same i- v characteristic as the original c ircuit.

- ~ I,
voltage or curren! by first si mplifying the other pans of the
circuit. 1be simplification process involves the use of circll;t
eqll;l'Oie"ce. wherein a circuit segment connected between two
20 V ~) 20 t 4A nodes (such as nodes I and 2 in Fig. 2·16) is replaced with
another. simpler. circuit whose behavior is such that the voltage
difference (V t - 112) between the two nodes-as well as the
currents entering into them (or exiting from them)-remain
"-Igu~ E2.9 unchanged. That is:

Answer: I I = 6 A, 12 = 2 A. (See 0 )
Two circuits connected between a pair of nodes are
Exercise 2·10: Determine Is in the circuit of Fig. E2.1O. considered to be equivalen! if they exhibit identical i-v
c haracteristics at those nodes.
4A

- 20
To the rest of the c ircuit. the original and equivalent circuit
segments appear identical.
We now will examine several types o f equivalent circuits
t Ix 20
and then provide an overall summary at the conclusion of this
40 80 <+- 21x section.

2-4.1 Resistors in Series

Figure [2.10
Consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 2-I7(a) in which a
vollage source VI is connected i" series with five resistors. The
Answer: Ix = 1.33 A. (See 0 > KVL equation is given by

(2.33)

2-4 Equivalent Circuits which can be rewritten as

Even though Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws can be used ~ =R.il +R2 ;I+ R3 ;1+ ~is+ ~il
(0 write down the requisite number of node and loop equations
= (R. + R2 + R3 + R4 + Rs )is
that are necessary 10 solve for all of the voltages and currents
in a circuit. it is onen easier to determine a cenain unknown (2.34)
24 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS 49

Mathematically.
Co mbi ning In-Series Resistors

...L -
is 1
+
RJ
vl -
R,
+ "2 - +
(resistors in series), (2.38. )

v,
,.
+
- v5 + - v4 +
V) R,
where N is the total number of resistors in the group.
2 R, R. TIle second conclusion is known as milage division :

•
(a) Original circuit
2. The voltage across any individual resistor Ri in a series

..J. -
i, 1 circuit is a proportionate fraction (Ril Req) of the vollage
across the entire group

v, +
,. Equivalent circuit R"
(2.38b)
2

Figu re 2·1 7: In a single-loop circuit. Req is cquallO the sum of Example 2-6: The Voltage Divider
the resistors.
1lle tenn volloge di vider is used commonly in reference to a
circuit ofthe type shown in Fig. 2· J8, whose purpose is 10 supply
where Req is an I!q" i~'Oltnt resistor whose resistance is equal a secondary load circuit a specific voltage 112 thai is smaller than
to the sum of the five in-series resistances, the available source voltage VI_ In other words. the goal is to
sca1e tI$ down to "2. Lf VI = 100 V. choose appropriate values
(2.35) for RI and R2 such lhat "2 = 60 V.
From the standpoint of the source voltage VI and the current is Solution: In view of Eq . (2.37), application of the voltage-
it supplies. the circuit in Fig. 2- I7(a) is equivalent to that in division property gives
Fig. 2· 17(b). That is.
. = - ", .
·s (2.36)
R"
For any of the individual resistors, such as R2, lhe voltage across
To obtain the desired d ivision. we require
it is given by

"2 = R2i.

= (::) VI'
(2.37)

Similar expressions apply to the other resistors, wherein the Voltage Divide r
voltage across a resistor is equal to VI multiplied by the ratio of
RJ
its own resistance 10 the sum total Req. Thus. the single·loop
cin:uit, in ~lf~t. dil'jdes tile soun:e lYJitage among the series +
resistors.
". +
R,
Two basic conclusio ns can be drawn from the preceding
discussion, '"
I. Multiple resistors connected in series (experiencing the
same current) can be combined into a single equivalent
resistor Req whose resistance is equal 10 the sum of all of Figure 2· 18: Vollage divider.
their individual resistances.
50 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

which can be satisfied through an infinite combination of

choices of Rl and R2 . Hence. we arbitrarily choose
RI R ,
+
..1. .l.
R\ = 2 kQ and VI +
- +
T T

•
2-4.2 Sources in Series (.)
Figure 2· 19 contains a single-loop circuit composed of a voltage
source, a resistor. and two currenl sources, all connected in
series. One of the current sources indicates that the currenl
Howing through it is 4 A in magnitude and clockwise in
direction, while the other current source indicates thai the
c urrent is 6 A in magnitude and counterclockwise in direction. (b) vtq = VI - V2 + 11)
Continuity of current flow mandates that the current flowing Figure 2·20: In-series voltage sources can be added logether
through the loop be exactl y the SlIme in both magnitude and algebraically.
direction al every location over lhe full extent of the loop.
So our dilemma is: Is the curren! 4 A. 6 A, or the difference
between the two? It is none of those guesses. The lrUe answer and
is that the circuit is un~alizabl~. meaning that it is nOI possible (2.40)
to construct a circuit with two current sources of different
magnitudes or different directions that are connected in series. Thus:
The problem with the circuit of Fig. 2· 19 has to do with our
representation of ideal current sources. As was stated in Section Multiple voltage sources connecled in series can be
1· 5.2 and described in Table 1·3. a real current source can be combined into an equivalent voltage source whose voltage
modeled as the parallel combination of an ideal current source is equal to the algebmic sum of the voltages of the
and a shunt resistor Rs. Usually. R, is very large. so very individual sources.
little current flows through it in comparison with the current
flowing through the other part of the circuil. in which case it
can be deleted without much consequence. In the present case.
2-4.3 Resistors and Sources in Parallel
however. had sucb shunt resistors been included in the circuit When multiple resistors are connected in series. they all share
of Fig. 2· 19. the dilemma would not have arisen. The lesson the same current. bul each has its own individual voltage across
we should Jearn from this discussion is that when we idealize it. The converse is true for multip\c resistors connected in
current sources by deleting their parallel resistors. we should paralle l: The three resistors in Fig. 2·21(a) experience the same
never connect them in series in circuil diagrams. voltage across all of Ihem. namely v•• bul each carries its own
Whereas current sources cannot be connected in series. individual current. Thecurrent supplied by thesource isdil"ided
voltage sources can. In fac t. il follows from KVL thai the circuit among the branches contai ning the three resislors. Thus,
in Fig. 2·20(a) can be simplified into the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 2· 20(b) with (2.41 )

Application of Ohm's law provides

(2.39)
. =".-.
'1
.
'2
".
= -. and I)
".
. = -, (2.42)
R, R, R,
6A
R
- which when used in Eq. (2 .41 ) leads to

I,
.
= -
v.
RI
+- +- .
V.
R2
U,

R)
(2.43)
+
Vo
- (I 4A
We wish to replace the parallel combi nation of the three resistors
with a single equivalent resistor Rtq. as depicted in Fig. 2·21 (b).
such that the current is remains unchanged. For the equivalent
circuit.
Figure 2· t9: Unrcalizable circuit: two current sources with different
magnillxles or directions cannot be connected in series.
. =".-.
's (2.44)
R..
2-4 EQUIVALENT C IRCUITS 51

Comb ining InMParallcl Resistors Multiple resistors connected in parallel divide the input
current among them.
i,
I •
For R2 in Fig. 2-2 I (a).
~ i, ~ i,

v, +- R, R,
.
12
v,
= R2 =
(RR2.. ).',. (2.48)

By extension, for a current djpider composed of N in-paralle l

2 resistors, the current Howing Ihrough Ri is a proponionate
fTaCt ion ( Req f Rj) of the input current.
(a) Original circuit It is useful to note that the equivalent resistance for a parallel
combination of two resistors Rl and R2 (Fig. 2-22) is given by

RJR2
R - -;C'-~o- (2.49)
eq - Rl + R2
I i,
• As a short-hand nOlalion. we will sometimes denote such a
parallel combination Rl II R2.

v, + R..
Current Division
2

(b) Equivalent circuit

I
-i,

~ i, ~ i,
I

Req=
I I 1)-'
(R I R2 R )
- +-+- . = (RR2.. ).
12 Is 2
R, R,
• 2
Req •
R\R2
R I +R2

Figure 2-21 : Voltage source connected to a parallel combination

of three resistors.
.' igurt 2·22: Equivalem circuit for two resiSlOf1 in parallel.

If the two circuits in Fig. 2 ·21 are to function the same. as

regards the source. then i, as given by Eq. (2.43) for the
original circuit sho uld be equal to the expression for i$ given As was noted earlier in Section 2- 1.3, the iI/verse of the
by Eq . (2.44) for the equivalent circuit. Thus, res;sWllce R is the conductallce G; G = If R. For N
conductances connected in parallel, Eq. (2.47) assumes the
(2.45) linear sum

from which we conclude that N

Gcq = L G. (conductances in parallel). (2.50)
(2.46) I.'
This result can be generalized to any N resistors connected in Two resislOrs always can be combined together, whether
parallel they are connected in series (sharing the same current) or in
parallel (sharing the same voltage). Two voltage sources can
be combined when connected in series. but they cannot be
I N I connected in parallel. Two current sources can be combined
-= L; - (resistors in parallel). (2.41)
when connected in parallel (as illustrated by Fig. 2-23), bul
R.. ,.
. , R,
they cannot be connected in series.
52 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

R, I
..l ..l
h ..I.
2 .,.t I, R2
T
I 12 R)
,.
~ t I)
• 2
R",
T
t I",

Figurf' 2·2J: Adding current sources connected in panlllei.

Example 2·7: Equlvalent-Clrcult Solution

I R, - 2
~Iz R,

Use the equivalent-resistance approach to determine V2. I •• /2. 24 V ./ -+ R, 40

and /) in the circuit of Fig. 2-24(a),
R) 6I! R, 60
i
...........
Solution: Our first step is to combine the 2-0 and 4-0
in-series resistances into n 6-0 resistance and 10 combine (a) '\
the two 6-Q in-parallel resistances into a 3-Q resistance (by --'- .
Combine Rj and
applying Eq. (2.49» . lbe simplificalions lead to the circuit in R4 in parallel
Fig. 2-24(b), NC:\I, we calculate the parallel combination of the
3-0 and 6-0 resistors. (3 H6). again using Eq. (2.49). to gel
(3 x 6)/ (3 + 6) = 18/ 9 = 2 n . The new equivalem circuit is
displayed in Fig. 2-24{c). from which we deduce that

24
I R,
- 2
V,
h = =2A
10+2 +
24V - 60
and

V2 = 2/, = 2 x 2 = 4 V.
(b)
RelUming to Fig. 2-24(b}, we apply Ohm's law to find hand h -- ~ ..
Combmmg 3 nand
6 n in parallel

•-
V2 4
h = - = - = 1.33 A,
3 3
a"d V, 100 It V2

I) = -V,6 = -64 = 0.67 A. I R, 2

24V + 20

Review Cuestlon 2·9: What conditions must be satisfied

in order for two circuits 10 be considered equivalent?
(c)
Review Question 2-10: What is a voltage divider and
what is a current divider?
Figure 2-24: Example 2·7. (a) Original circuit. (b) after combining
Review Question 2·11 : What is the ;-IJ relationship for Rj and R4 in parallel and combining R2 and RS in series. and (c) after
a conductance G? combining the ) . (2 and 6-(2 resistances in parallel.
54 CHAPTER 2 RESISTI VE CIRCUITS

Table 2·6: Equivalent circuits.

C ircuit Equivalent

R,

R, • RI + Rz
R,

R, R, ~~~ (R, II R,)

RJR2
RI + R2 t
I
~ -~
~
2

+
~ v'

U" • + VI + \'2
3

R
," Ra+RbR~
R,,+ Re
R2" RaRe
Ro+ R,,+ Rc
;, ( I ) ( I ) ;, ~ (0 ;,+ ;, R ,- Ra+RaRb
R,,+ Rc
R RIR2 + R2RJ + RIR]
D-
R,
RJR2 + R2R) + RIR)
R.-
R,
+' v
•
~ cb
t ;sz; v.
Rs R.
• For RQ
Rc·
""
R,
RIR2 + RZRJ + R,R)
R,
R" - Re ... H I - RZ'" R):= Ro / 3
1 • ForR I '= Rz - R) .... Ro - Rb - Rc= 3R t

•
54 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Table 2-6: Equivalent cirruilS.

,
Ci rc uil Eq uh alent
,, ,,"2
' ",
R, c
R, R,
~ R. + R2
R,
R)

T 3

R, R, ~ (Rd l R21
RIR2
RI + R2
,
t
R,
• 2

.1+ v,
R. Ra
-
~ (~ VI + VZ
+ 3
- '"
•T , RI :: RbRc
Ro+ Rb+ Rc
Rz _ Rolle
Ro+ Rb+ Rc
~
" t t " t i l + ;2
R3 = RoRb
Ra+ Rb+ Re
R IR2 + R2N) + RIR)
~ Ra - R,
RIR2 + R2R) + R\RJ
T Rb =
R,
R,
v, R IR2 + R2R) + RIR)
+ v, ~ t ;• '"' -R, R, R, =
RJ
- • For RQ - Rb:C Re .... RI - Rz = R) - Ro / )
~ • For RI ,., Rz :: RJ .... Ro - Rb = Re - 3R.

•
2-4 EQUIVALENT C IRCU ITS 55

Example 2-8: Source Tranafonnation Solution: It is best to avoid transfonnations thai would
involve the 3-0 resistor with the unknown currenl I . Hence. we
Delennine the currenl I in the circuit of Fig. 2-26(a), will apply multiple source-transformation steps. moving from
the left end of the circuit towards the 3-n resistor.
Slrp I : Cum:nllo voltage transformationalJows us loconvert
60 10 the combination ( /'1' RII ) 10 a vohage source
I-? I
t R,,- 2fl SO 30

in series with Rsi •

Sltp 1: Combining R SI in series with the 6-Q resistor results

• Step 1
'"
Ril =2+ 6 =8 Q .
Step 2 R'l-, SQ
, , Hence. the new input source becomes (VSI' RI2 ).
20 60 10
Sttp 3: Convert (VII' R12 ) back into a current source
J. R" II
V,, - 32V( ~ ) SO 30

in parnllel with R12 •

* Step J
10
Sup 4: Combine R I2 in parallel with the other 8-n
= 8 Q
resistor (8 • 8) to obIain an equivalent resistance Rs] :;:::: 4 n.
Sup 50' Com'en again to a voltage source

II
I"I - 4A tT RI:z""S O SO 30
in series with RaJ.
For lhe single loop reali:ted in the final step,
, Step 4
Vil 16
10 1= = - = 2A.
4 + 1 +3 S
1 II
t R'J "" 4 n 30

T Exerelu 2·12: Apply source transformation 10 the circuit

in Fig. E2.12 to find I .
, Step 5 Ans,-,er: 1 = 4 A. (See 0 )

60
40 10
~I
,.l II
+ 12 V + 40 30 t lOA
30 -

.' Igure 2·26: Example 2-8 circuit evolution. Figure £2. 12

-----
56 TECHNOLOCiV BRI EF 4: RES ISTORS AS SENSORS

Technology Brief 4: Resistors as Sensors

The relationship between the voltage across a conductor and the current through it is given by Ohm's law, V = IR. The
resistance R of the conductor accounts for the reduction in the electrons' velocities due to collisions with the much
larger atoms of the conducting material (see Technology Brief 3 on page 38). The question is: What happens to R
if we disturb the atoms of the conductor by applying an external, non-electrical stimulus. such as heating or cooling
it, stretching or compressing it, or shining light on it? Through proper choice of materials, we actually can modulate
(change) the magnitude of R by applying such external stimuli, and this forms the basis of many common sensors.

Piezoresistive Sensors
In 1856, Lord Kelvin discovered that applying a mechanical load on a bar of metal changed its resistance. Over the next
150 years, both theoretical and practical advances made it possible to describe the physics behind this effect in both
conductors and semiconductors. The phenomenon is referred to as the piezoresisUve effect (Fig . TF4-1) and is used
in many practical devices to convert a mechanical signal into an electrical one. Such sensors (Fig. TF4-2) are called
strain gauges. Piezoresistive sensors are used in a wide variety of consumer applicatIons, including robot toy "skins·
that sense force, microscale gas-pressure sensors, and micromachined accelerometers that sense acceleration. They
all use piezoresistors in electrical circuits to generate a signal from a mechanical stimulus.
In its simplest form, a resistance change 6 R occurs when a mechanical pressure P (Nlm2) is applied along the axis
of the resistor (Fig. TF4-1)
6R = RoaP,
where Ro is the unstressed resistance and a is known as the piezores/stive coefficient (m 2/N). The piezoresistive
coeffICient is a material property, and for crystalline materials (such as silicon) , the piezoresistive coefficient also varies
depending on the direction of the applied pressure (relative to the crystal planes of the material). The total reSistance
of a piezoresistor under stress is therefore given by

The pressure P, which usually is called the mechanical stress or mechanical load, is equal to F/ A, where F is the
force acting on the piezoresistor and A is the cross-sectional area it is acting on . The sign of P is defined as positive
for a compressional force and negative for a stretching force. The piezoresistive coefficient a usually has a negative
value, so the product aP leads to a decrease in R for compression and an increase for stretChing .

R(O)

,- . . ..,..-'" •
SRI
I e •
, )
f 'i

Figure TF4-1 : Piezoresislance varies with applied force.

The word "piezein- means "to press· in Greek.
TECHNOLOCiY BRIEF 4: RESISTORS AS SENSORS 57

Thermistor Sensors
Changes in temperature also can lead to changes in the resistance of a piece of conductor or semiconductor; when
used as a sensor, such an etement is called a tIHIrmistOT. As a simple approximation, the change in resistance can
be modeled as
t.R=kt.T,
where Il. Tis the temperature change (in degrees C) and kis the flrst-order temperature coefficient of resistance (n r C).
Thermistors are classffied according to whether k is negative or positive (i.e., if an increase in temperature decreases
or increases the resistance) . This approximation 'Narks onty for small temperature changes; for larger swings, higher-
order terms must be Included in the equation. Resistors used in electrical circuits that are not intended to be used as
sensors are manufactured from materials with the lowest k possible, since circuit designers do not want their resistors
changing during operatk>n. In contrast, materials with high values of k are desirable for sensing temperature variations.
Care must be taken, however, to incorporate into the sensor response the self-heating effect that occurs due to having
a current passing through the resistor itself.
Thermistors are used routinely in modern thermostats and in baHery-pack chargers (to prevent batteries from
overheating) . Thermistors also have found niche applications (Fig. TF4-3) in low-temperature sensing and as fuse
replacements (for thermistors with large, positive k values). In the case of current-limiting fuse replacements, a large
enough current self-heats the thermistor, and the resistance increases. There is a threshold current above which the
thermistor cannot be cooled off by its environment; as it continues to get hotter, the resistance continues to increase,
which in turn, causes even more self-heating. This -runaway" effect rapidly shuts current off almost entirely.

(a) Schematic

Figure TF4-3: This micromachined anemometer is a

thermistor that measures fluid velOCity; as fluid flows by,
It cools the thermislor al dltferefll rates, depending on
the fluid velOCity. (Courtesy of Khalil Najafi, University of
(b) Scanning electron micrograph (SEM ) of the sensor
Michigan .)

Figure TF4 ·2: A mlcrofabricated pressure sensor

developed al the University of Michigan . It uses
plezoresistors to detect defOfmation 01 a membrane;
when the membrane (white) dellects. it stretches the
piezoresistor and the resistance changes. (Courtesy of
Khalil Najafi, University of Michigan.)
58 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE C IRCUITS

RO 1 1 2

Vo +
••
J J
Y circuit 6 circuit
(.) (b)

Figure 2·28: V-A equivalent circui ts.

Figure 2·27: No two resistors of this circuit shan: the same current
(connected in series) or voltage (connected in parallel).
I and 2 is simply

2-5 Wye-Delta (Y-A) Transfonnation RI 2 = R , + R2 (Y-circuit). (2.55)

Repeating the procedure for the tJ. circuit (again with node 3
tn principle. it always is possible to simplify the behavior of not connected to the external circuit) leads to a configuration
a resistive circuit when measured across any two nodes-no between nodes I and 2 consisting of Re in parallel with the
maner how complex its lopology-down to a simple equivalent series combination of Ro and Rb . Hence.
circuit comp.»ed of an equivalent voltage source in series with
an equivalent resistor. lbe preceding sections offered us tools cR",<.:;(R.;,",:-+:...c.R,,'),.
R12 = -::: ( tJ. -circuit). (2.56)
for combining resistors together whenever they are connected Ro+ Rb+ Re
in series or in parallel . as well as for combining in-series voltage Upon equating the expressions for RI 2 given by Eqs. (2.55) and
sources and in-parallel current sources. Somelimes. however. (2.56). we have
we may encounter circuit topologies that canllOt be simplified
using those tools because their resistors are connected neither in Rr:(Ro + Rb}
R 1 + R2 = . (2.57.)
series nor in parallel. A case in point is thecircuil in Fig. 2-27, in Ro+ Rb+ Rr:
which no two resistors share the same current or voltage. This When applied to the other two combinations of nodes, the
section introduces a new circuit-simplification lool-k:nown as foregoing procedure leads to:
the lVy~Della (Y-06.) trans/ormation-for deallng specifically
wilh such a circuit arrangement. (2.57b)
To thai end. lei us start by considering the Y and 6 circuit
segments shown in Fig. 2-28(a) and (b), respectively. Let us
assume lhat the same external circuit is connected to the Y and Rb( Ro + Re)
tJ. circuits at nodes I. 2. and 3. Our task is to develop a set of RI + R) = . (2.57c)
Ro+ Rb+ Re
transformation relations between the resistor set ( RI. H2. R)
of the Y circuit and the resistor set ( Ro . Rb. R,,) of the tJ. circuit 2-5 . 1 6. -+- Y TransfonnaLion
that will allow us to replace the Y circuit with the tJ. circuit
Solution of the preceding set of equations provides the
(or vice versa) without affecting the terminal characteristics
following expressions for R I. R2, and R):
(currents and voltages) at nodes 1, 2. and 3. That is. from the
standpoint of the external circuit. the Y and 6 circuits should
behave equivalently. (2.58,)
The standard procedure employed in deriving the transfor-
mation relations is to (a) set one node as an open circuit (i.e.,
not connected to an external circuit), (b) derive an expression
for the resistance between the other two nodes (as if a vollage (2.58b)
source were connected between them) of the Y circuit. (c) follow
the same procedure for the tJ. circuit. and then (d) equate the
expressions obtained in steps (b) and (c). For example. with
node 3 open-circuited. the Y circuit reduces to just two in-series (2.5Se)
resistors HI and R2. in which case the resistance between nodes
2-5 WYE-DELTA (y .6.) TRANS FO RMAT ION 59

Note the symmetry associated with the form o f these Ro J J

expressions: R, o/ Ih~ Y c;'ruil. which is cormf!ct~d 10 nod~ I.
is g iv~n by 011 up~ss;on (&[. (2.5&)) whose numuatQr;s Ihe
product o/the two ~s;slOrs connected to node I ;n the .6. circuit.
namely Rb and Re. lne same form of symmetry applies to R2
and RJ. '0 +
1be transfonnalion represented by the three parts of
Eq. (2.58) enables us to replace the ll. circuit with a Y circuit
without having any impact on the external circuit.

2
(a)
2-5.2 Y-to .6 Transformation

When applied in the reverse d irectio n, from Y to ll. the RO J J

associated transformation relations are given by the following •0 •0
expressions . 0 0
R, 0
_ .... 0
__ J-
R,
R" =-.R",:eR!.,..:+_R
",:;R
"',-+:..:R"O:.:R;e'
Ro
(2.59.) '0( ~ ) J
-~---r
4

R, 0
0
0
0
0 0
• •
Rb = R,R2+ R2RJ+ R,RJ
(2.59b) 2 2
R,
(b)
R,R2 + R2RJ + R,R]
(2.590) figure 2-29: Redrawing the circuit of Fig. 2-27 to resemble (a>Y and
R,
(b) T and n subcircuits.

For this transfonnation , the symmetry is as follows : R" 0/ the

II cirellil, which is connected between nodes 2 and 3, is gil'en
by an exp~ssioll (Eq. (2.59a)) whose denominator is R I • the
resistor connected to node I of the Y cirellit. This fonn of
symmetry also applies to Rb and Re. 2-5.3 Balanced Circuits
When westanedou r examination ofthe Y- l:J. transformation.
we referred to Fig. 2-27 . Returning to that figure, we note that
the circuit contai ns two obvious .6. circuits. namely RI - R2-
If the resistors of the l:J. circuil are all equal. the circuit is said
R) and R3-Rj- R4. as well as two not-so-obvious Y circuits: to be balallced. as a result of which the Y circuit will also be
balanced and will have equal resistors givcn by
RI- R]-R4 and R2-R]-Rs. To demonstrate that those two
combinations are indeed Y circuits. we have redrawn the circuit
in the form shown in Fig. 2-29(a) where we strelched nodes I
and 2 from single points into two horizontal lines. Electrically.
we did not change the circuit whatsoever. Figure 2-29(b) (2.600)
depicts another rendition of the same circuit. In this case, the
Y circuit given by R ,-R )-R4 resembles a sideways T rather
than a Y. and !he 6 circuit given by RI - R)-R2 resembles and conversely
a n. Hence. it is not surprising that the Y- l:J. transformation
is oftentimes called the T- n lransfonnation . II is instructive
10 note that the shape in which a circuit is drawn is irrelevant (2.601»
electrically ; what does matter is how the branches areconnected
to the nodes.
60 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Example 2·9: ApplylngY-h, Transformation resistances

24 x 36
Simplify the circuit in Fig. 2·3O(a) by applying the V- A RI= = 12Q
24+36+12 '
transformation so as to detennine the curren! I.
24 x 12
Solution: Noting the symmetry rules associated with the R,= =4Q
24+36+12 •
transformation. the 0. circuit connected to nodes I , 3, and 4
can be replaced with a Y circuit. as shown in Fig. 2·3O(b), with
."d
36 x 12
RJ = 24 + 36 + 12 = 6 O.
Next, we add the 4-0: and 20-0 resistors in series. obtaini ng
50
- I I 24 n for lhe right branch of the trapezoid. Similarly, the left
branch combines into 12 n and the two in-parallel branches
reduce to a resistance equal 10 (24 x 12) / (24 + 12) = 8 n.
When added to the 5-0 and 12-0 in-series resistances. this
12n leads to the final circuit in .Fig. 2-30(c). Hence.
100 V + 4
100
1= - =4A .
25

Original circuit 2 Review Question 2-12: When is the v-a. transfonnalion

(a)
used? Describe the inherent symmeoy between the
resistance values oflhe Y circuil and Ihoseofthe 6 circuit

5n
-- I I
RevHtw Question 2·13: How arc the eiemenlS of a
balanced Y circuit related to those of its equivalent 6
circuit?

o Exercise 2·13: For each of the circuits shown in

Fig. E2.13, determine the equivalent resistance between
terminals (a, b).
IOOV +
Ion Ion
3 4

ROJ - Ion
b ~-------L--------J

After 6 - Y transformation 2 (a)

(b)

Ion Ion

-
I

b o-------~L--------"
Ion

IOOV + 25n
(b)

Fi&urt £1. 13
(0) Final circuit

"'gure Z.30: Example 2·9 circuit evolution.

AnsM"er: (a) Rfq = 15 n, (b) Req = O. (See 0 )
 2-6 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 61

2-6 The Wheatstone Bridge rrom which we have

Developed initially by Samuel Christie (1784-1865) in 1833

as an accurate ohmmeter for measuring resistance. the (Balanced condition). (2.63)
Wheatstone bridge subsequently was popularized by Sir
Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875). who used it in a variety of
practical applications. Today. the Wheatstone-bridge circuit is
integral to numerous sensing devices. includjng strain gauges,
force and torque sensors, and inertial gyros. The reader is I Example 2-10: Wheatstone-Bridge Sensor
refelTt:d to Technology Brief 4 on page 56 for an iIIuslTative
A special version or the Wheatstone bridge (Fig. 2-32) is
example.
configured specifically for m~QSlln'ng small tiLviations from
The Wheatstone-bridge circuit shown in Fig. 2-3 I consists of
a fl'f~fl'nce condition. An example of a rererence condition
four resistors: two fixed resistors (RI and R2) of known values,
might be a highway bridge with no load on it. A strain gauge
an adjustable resistor R3 whose value also is known, and a
employing a high-sensitivity fl exible resistor can measure the
resistor R,x of unknown resistance. A dc voltage source Vo is
small deflection in (he bridge surface caused by the weight
connected between the top node and ground, and an ammeter
(force) of a car or truck when present on it. As the force deflects
is connected between nodes I and 2. The standard procedure
(he surface of the bridge to which the resistor is attached. the
ror detennining Rx starts by adjusting R3 so as to make I. ~ O.
resistor stretches in length, causing its resistance to increase
TIle absence of current flow between nodes 1 and 2, cal led
rrom a no minal value R (under no stress) to R + !lR. The
tbe balanced condilion, impljes that VI = V2. From voltage
o ther three resistors in the Wheatstone-bridge circuit are all
division. VI =
R ) VO / ( Rt + R3), and V2 =
R,x Vo/ ( R2 + R,x). identical and equal 10 R. Thus, when no vehicles are present
Hence,
on the bridge. the circuit is in the balanced condition.
(2.61) Develop an approximate expression ror VOU!: (the OUlput
RI + R) R2 + R,x voltage between nodes I and 2) ror l!J. R / R I. «
A balanced bridge also implies that the voltages across HI
and R2 are equal. Solution: Voltage division gives

Rt Vo R2VO
- (2.62)
R, + R) R2+ R,x
and
Dividing Eq. (2.6 1) by Eq. (2.62) leads to
V2 _ Vo(R + !l R) _ _Vo",("R-.,+,-;-t."Rc.)
R) R,x - R +( R +t. R) 2R+t.R
R;'=R2'

Vo Vo

+
Vo -:::-
R,
/ - I,
v, Vo
+
-::!::- O-----:;~ V,

Flexible

- -
resistor

Figure 2-3 1: Whea15lOOe-bridge circuit containing an adjustable v: ~ Vo (t.R)

~ 4 R
variable resistor R) and an unknown resistor R,x . When R) is adjusted
=
to make fa O. R,x is determined from R,x =
( R2I R.)RJ. "-igure 2-32: Circuit for Wheatstone-bridge sensor.
62 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Hence, providing a simple linear relationship between the change in

resistance 0. R and the output voltage VOU!_
VOU! = V2 - VI
Vo(R + a R) - -
Vo
=
2R + 6R 2
2Vo(R + .t>R) - Vo(2R + "R) Review Question 2·14: What is a WhealSlone bridge used
= for?
2(2R + "R)
Vo 6R Vo 6R Review QuesUon 2·15: What is the balanced condition
= 4 R + 2 "R = 74R;;:(O-,-7+--:"--;R"/2;;-R"') in a Wheatstone bridge?

Since 6 R I R « I, ignoring the second term in the denominator

would incur negligible error. Such an approximation leads to
Exercise 2-14: If in the sensor circuit of Fig. 2-32,
Vo = 4 V and the smallest value of Vout thai can be
measured reliably is 1 /-LV. what is the corresponding
(2.64)
accuracy with which (t1 Rj R) can be measured?

Answer: 10-6 or 1 part in a million. (See 0 )

2-7 Application Note: Linear versus dosing of the SPST switch, the current I , will flow entirely
Nonlinear i- v Relationships through the shoo circuil. resulting in

V.
I, = - = IOOA! (switch closed).
Ideal resistors and voltage and current sources are all R.
considered linear elements; the relationship between the
current and the voltage across anyone of them is described This is a very large current. Many household wires would
by a straight line. lbe i-v relationships plotted in Fig. 2-33 begin to overheat and melt ofT their insulation at such high
for the current source, the voltage source, and the resistor currents.
have slopes of 0, 00, and 1/ R. respectively. It is precisely for this reason that the fuse (and later,
the breaker) came into heavy use in power-distribution
circuits (Fig. 2-34(b». The i-v curve for a fuse, shown
in (Fig. 2-34(c», is decidedly nonlinear: Above a certain
2-7. 1 The Fuse: A Simple Nonlinear Element

Many very useful circuit elements do not have linear i-v I

relationships. Consider Fig. 2-34{a). A realistic voltage
source is connected to a load RL at tenninals (a, b). Note that _Io+ _ _ _ _ ...,./<-__-+_C=w"'re:::n::.tsource 10
the resistance value of the source resistor Rli is much smal ler
than that of the load (I r2 versus I kr2). It is typical of a well-
designed voltage source 10 have a small source resislor so as
to minimize the voltage drop across it. 1be switch simulates Voltage source Vo
k
an accidental short circuit. Application of KVL to the loop
in Fig. 2-34(a) (with the switch in the open position) leads to

Iii = R,+VI RL = ",",,:.:0=

100
~ 0.1 A (switch open).
V slope -

' -_ _ _ _ _ _t-~.!:.
o __ V

1+1000
figure 2-33: I_V relationships for a resistor R. an ideal
If. accidentally. a short circuit were to be introduced across voltage source Vo . and an ideal current source 10.
tenninal (a. b), which is represented schematically by the
2·7 APPLICATION NOTE: LiNEAR VERSUS NONLINEAR i-v RELATIONSHIPS 63

!!.. Rs '" I 0 a
F"'-":';w---o---,--, Accidental
f Y, ' 100 V RL ' I ill ?
4 short circuit
-
T Cathod~~-
Sou rce b Load
(a) Accidental short circuit represented by a switch (a) Diode symbol

..l
+
-
- -
I, R,

Vs= l00V
Ir Fuse
-.. -..
+ Vr -
a

RL
10

Knee voltage - 0
Source w ith fu se b Load
(b) Fuse to protect voltage source
----~~-----------~
Ir
(b) i- v ofan ideal diode

- ------ 10
r Approximate
practical
-r------------------------- ~ diode response -r--- 1-'-Real diode response
(c) i- v characteristic for a fuse U Forward voltage "F
.' lgUrf: 2-34: Use of a fuse to protect a voltage source. -==T /" Yo

(c) i- v of a real diode

current level, the fuse wi ll cease to allow more current to pass
through it. acting like a current limiter. The physical device Figure 2-35 : pn-junction diode schematic symbol and i - u
contains a small metal wire that is designed 10 melt away characteristics.
at a specific current level (called its m·uCIITnnl). thereby
becoming an open circuit and preventing large currents from
flowing through the circuit. Note that Fig. 2·34(c) does not
explain the fuse's time..dependent behavior; it describes the 2-7.2 The Diode: A Solid·State Nonlinear
fuse's behavior only until the moment at which the current Element
exceeds the overcurrent. After that. the fuse just looks like
an open circuit. The diode is a mainstay of solid-state circuits. Its circuit
Fuses also are rated for several other important schematic symbol is shown in Fig. 2-35(a) with VD as the
characteristics such as how fast they can respond. Ultra· vollage across the diode. defined such that the (+) side is at
fast fuses can trip in miJli· to micro-seconds. Another the anode terminal of the diode and the (-) side at its cathode
important attribute is the maximum voltage it can sustain terminal . There are many types of diodes. including the
across its terminals. Note that in Fig. 2-34(b). once the fuse basic pn-junction diode. the Zener and Schottky diodes. and
assumes the role of an open circuit. the voltage across it the ubiquitous light-emitting diode (LED) used in consumer
becomes VI' If this voltage is too high. arcing and sparks e lectronics. An overview of the operation and uses of the
might develop between the terminals (we know from physics LED is available in Technology Brief 5 on page 96. For the
that a large-enough voltage in air will break down the air present, we will limit our discussion to the pn-junction diode,
molecules. causing them to conduct and generate a bright commonly referred to si mply as the diode . The pn diode
spark). Clearly. that is an important raling factor to keep in consists of a p-tJpe semiconductor placed in contact with
mind when selecting a fuse . an II-type semiconductor, thereby fom ling ajullction. The
64 C HAPTER 2 RES ISTIV E C IRCUITS

p-type material is so named because the impurities that have and the approximate diode model of Fig. 2· 35(c ) is that in
been added to irs bulk material result in a crys"lalline structure the latter the transition from reverse to forward bias occurs
in which the available charged carriers are predominanlly at a non·zero. positive value of Vo . namely thefont'ard·bio.s
POS;I;}'~ charges. The opposite is true for the n-type material ; )'Ollage VF. For a silicon pn·junction diode. a typical value
difTereni types of impurities are added to the bulk material, of VF is 0.7 V. We always should remember that VF is a
as a result of which the predominant carriers are negalil-e property of the diode itself. nOl of the circuit it is a pan of.
charges (electrons). Tn the absence of a voltage across the
diode, the two sets of carriers diffuse away from each other
at the edge of the junction. generating an associated built-in
I Example 2-11: Diode Circuit
potential barrier (voltage), caJted theforM.·ard-bias ~'oJ(Qge 11le circuit in Fig. 2·36 contains a diode with VF = 0.7 V.
or offset )'oUage VF . Detennine 10.
The main useoflhe diode is as a ont·way \'a/ve for current.
Figure 2-35(b) displays the i- v relationship for an ideal Solution: Initially, we do nOl know whether the diode is
diode, which conveys the following behavior: forward biased or reverse biased. We will first assume it is
forward biased in order to compute 10. TheD, if it turns out
that 10 is positive, our assumption will have been validated,
Current can flow through the diode from the (+) but if 10 is negative, we will conclude that the diode is reverse
lenninallo the (- ) tcnninal unimpeded, regardless of its biased and no current flows through the circuit.
magnitude. but it cannot flow in the opposite direction. Application of KVL around the loop gives

In other words. an ideal diode looks like a short circuit for - v, + loR + Vo = O.
positive values of Vo and like an open circuit for negative
values of Vo . 1nese two states are called fOTl"ard bias If the diode is forward biased. Vo = 0.7 V. which leads to
and r~n~rs~ bias, respectively. When a positive·bias voltage
exceeding VF is applied to the diode. the potential barrier is 10 = VI - VD _ 5 - 0 .7 = 43 mAo
counteracted. allowing the flow of current from p to n (which R 100
includes positive charges flowing in that direction as well as The positive sign of 10 confinns our assumption that the
negative charges flowing in the opposite direction). On the diode is indeed forward biased.
other hand. if a negative·bias voltage is applied to the diode. As an interesting aside. one could use this circuit to
it adds to the poIenlial bamer. further restricting the flow of control the current through a light-emitting diode (LED). As
charges across the barrier and resulting in no current flow explained in Technology Brief 5 on page 96. the amount
from n to p. of light emitted by an LED (i.e .. how bright it appears) is
1be voltage level at which the diode switches from reverse proportional directly to the current 10 passing through it
bias to forward bias is called the /mee voltag~ or forward· when it is forward biased. By using the circuit in Fig. 2-36
bias voltage. For the ideal diode. VF = 0 and the knee is at and choosing an appropriate value for R. we can buiJd a
Vo = O. which means that the forward·bins segment of its circuit that forward biases an LED and controls its brightness.
i-v characteristic is aligned perfectly along the lo·axis. as
shown in Fig. 2-35(b).
Rea) diodes differ from the ideal diode model in two
important respects: (I) the knee in the curve is not at Vo = O.
and (2) the diode does nOl behave exactly like a perfect short
circuit when in forward bias nor like a perfect open circuit V5= 5 V
).
+
+ VR _
R - IOO n
-
10

* +VD
when in reverse bias. Figure 2-35(c) shows a real diode
i - v curve. and an approximate, equivalent, diode model for T
use in practical applications. Note how nonlinear a real
diode really is! For many electrical engineering applications.
-
however. the oonlinearities are nOl so important. and the Figure 2-]6: Diode circuit of Example 2· 11 .
approximate ideal· like diode model is quite sufficient. 1be -

only difference between the ideal diode model ofAg. 2· 35(b)

2·7 APPLICATION NarE: LINEAR VERSUS NONLINEAR i- v RELATIONS HIPS 65

RevHtw Question 2·16: What is the oven:ur~nt of a I Mechanical load

fuse? No load P (N/m 2)
Review Question 2·17: Why does a pn·junction diode
ha"e a non· zero forward-bias voltage VF?
------------~
r--r==R-
R
R + llR
Exercise 2·15: Detennine I in the IWO circuits of ,--_J
Fig. E2.IS. Assume VF = 0.7 V for all diodes.
Figure 2-37 : The resistance of a piCl.OTeSislor changes when
21<{} mechanical stress is applied.

+ 31<{} + 31<{}
12 V 12 V
.:
If a piezoresisto r is integrated into a Wheatstone· bridge
circuit (as in Fig. 2·32). such that all three other resistors are
given by Ro. the expressio n for the vollage output given by
(a) (b) Eq . (2.64) becomes
.lgure 1-.:.2, 15
VOU! = Vo (t.R) = Vo aP. (2.67)
Aos"er: (a) I = 2.12 mAo (b) I = O. (See J ) 4 Ro 4

Since Vo and a are both constants. the linear relationship

2-7.3 Piezoresistor Circuit between the applied stress P and the output voltage VOUl
According to Technology Brief 4 on page 56. if we apply a makes the piezoresistor a natural sensor for detecting or
force on a resistor along its axis (Fig. 2·37). the resistance measuring mechanical stress. However, we should examine
changes from Ro. which is the resistance with no stress the sensitivity of such a sensor. As a reference. a finger can
(pressure) applied. to R as apply about 50 N o f force across an area of I cm 2 ( 10-4 m 2),
which is equivalent to a pressure P = 5 x I~ N/m 2. [f the
R = Ro + IlR , (2.65) piezoresistor is made of silicon with a = - I x 10- 9 m2/N
and if the dc source in the Wheatstone bridge is Vo = I V.
and the deviation Il R is given by
Eq. (2.67) yields the res ult that VOU! = - 125 J,LV, which is
6.R = Roa P, (2.66) not impossible to measure but quite small nevert heless. How
then are such pressure sensors used?
where a is a property of the material that the resistor is The answer is simple: We need a mechanism to amplify
made of and is called its pie1.Dresislh·e coefficie"" and P the signal. We can do so electronically by feeding VOIIt into
is the mechanical stress applied to the resistor. The unit a high~gain amplifier, or we can ampHfy the mechanical
for Pis newtonslm 2 (N/m2) and the unit for a is the inverse pressure itself before applying it to the piezoresistor.
of that. Compression decreases the length of the resistor The latter approach can be realized by constructing the
and increases its cross section, so in view of Eq. (2.2). piezoresistor into a cantilever structure. as shown in Fig. 2-38
which states that the resistance of a longitudinal resistor (a cantilever is a fancy name for a "diving board" with one
is given by R = p i / A, the consequence of a compressive end fixed and the other free). Deflection of the cantilever tip
force-namely reduction in i and increase in A- leads to a induces stress at the base of the cantilever near the attachment
reduction in the mngnitude of R. Hence, for compressio n. point. If properly designed. the cantilever- which usually is
6.R is negative. requiring that a in Eq. (2.66) be defined as made of silicon or meta1-can amplify the applied stress by
a negative quantity. several orders of magnitude (see Example 2- 12).
66 C HA PTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Example 2·12: A Realistic Ptezoresistor Sensor Tbe integrated piezoresistor-eantiJever arrangement gen-
erales an output voltage whose magnitude is on the order
When a force F is applied on the tip of a cantilever of of 400 limes greater than that generated by pressing on the
width W, thickness H . and length L (as shown in Fig. 2-38) resistor directly!
the conesponding stress tllened on the piezoresistor attached
10 the cantilever base is given by
FL Review Question 2·18: Does compression along the
p= lVH 2' (2.68)
current direction increase or decrease the resistance?
Detennine the output vollage of a Wheatstone-bridge circuit Why?
if F = 50 N, Vo = L V. the piezoresistor is made of silicon,
Review Question 2·19: Why are piezoresistors
andthecantileverdimensionsare W = a.Scm. H = 0 .5 mm,
placed at the base of cantilevers and other deflecting
andL= l cm.
structures?
Solution: Combining Eqs. (2.67) and (2.68) gives
Vo FL
Vout = "4 a· W H 2 Exltf'Cll8 2-16 : What would the output voltage
1 50 x 10- 2 associated with the circuit of Example 2-12 change to.
= - x (-I x 10-9) x ."-....,"":-i:'-'--';'O---oco--.,,, if the cantilever thickne.o;s is reduced by a factor of2?
4 (5 x 10- 3) x (5 x JO 4)2
=-O.IV. Ans_er: Vout = -0.4 V. (See )

Rest position Force F

P W-------- -----___J -- -----
,,'-~
~ ---,-' --- -
--:-:: ---
---------
-- --
" ~
------. - -~

-----
---
- --
L
---- ----
----- - _A' ,,~~"
~~
-..I.~

Defl ected position

"'igurt 2·)8: A cantile\'er structure with integnlted piezoresistOf at the base.

2-8 Introducing Multisim Berkeley. in the early I 970s. It since bas inspired and
been used in many academic and commercia1 software
Multisim II is the latest edition of National Instruments packages to simulate analog. digital, and mixed-signal
SPICE simulator software. SPICE. originally shon for circuits. Modem SPICE simulators like Multisim are
Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis, was indispensable in integrated circuit design; ICs are so complex
developed by Larry Nagel at the University of California. that they cannot be built and tested on a breadboard
68 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

_ . _ _ ._ . _ _-x

ill ....... _ ... - - - - - __ ..te

0., . . . _a • • .. tt. .. , m
~ • • • a4l · 1 0 ' • • F- - 3 .? • ••
ae
'- . ~ .f>", .a • • 1D - . 1' . 1 t. r

Node numbtr_
".•
••
1 CompontDt !:o
name
I
••
R'
''''
'(component
-I'I-:
•
...LV,
-=- 10 V Nod.
number ......
12
Vllue
•-••
~

J I~
3
R2
'000 --
/ ,,~ 1.-
Fonn '" ire corn~r F inish dl'llgiog wire
b) clkkiog b~", to RI lo comp~tt cin:uit
.S )"ou drill "ire
.,
f1
"
___.-r •
.oW

"' iguft 2-40: Adding a voltage 50UTCC and completing the circuit.

Scroll down and select a 1k value (the units are in Choose Database: Master Database and Group:
ohms) and then click OK. You should see a resistor in Sources in the pulldown menus.
the capture window. Be rore clicking in the window.
C1rI-R a llows you to rolale the resistor in the window. Select Family: POWER_SOURCES.
Rotate the resistor such that it is vertical and then
Under Component select DC_POWER and c lick OK.
click anywhere on the window to place it. Repeat this
operation; this lime place a vertical IOO...ohm resistor Place the part somewhere to the left of the two resistors
directly below the first one (as in Fig. 2-40). How to (F;g.2-40).
connect them together will be described shon ly. Once
you are finished placing components. click Close to Once placed, close the component wi ndow, then double-
return to the schematic capture window. click on component Vl . Under the Value tab. change
Note that the components have symbolic names (R I and the Voltage to 10 V. C lick OK.
R2) and values displayed next to them (lk and 1(0).
Also. by double-clicking on a specific component. you Step 3: Wiring Componen ts Together
can access many details of the component model and Place _ Wire allows you to use your mouse to
its values. For now. it is sufficient to know that the
wire components together with click:-and-drag motions
Resistance value can be altered at any time through
(Ctrl-Q is the shoncut key for the wire command). You
the Value menu.
can also enable the wire tool automatically by moving
Step 2: Placing an Independent Voltage Source the cursor very close to a component node; you should
Just as you did with me resistors, open up the Select a see the mouse pointer change into a black circle with a
Component window. cross-hair.
2-8 INTRODUCING M ULTISIM 67

, ---- .,'. .......--.

-- -:-~ .

-
cC
J
'" I
......... .. I
r _ _
C
1-.>
$I • • . . . ,
........ •
::I
---
-"-'I
I
I
f• • ~
J. ::I
...... ...",."

.. •

-
ngu ~ 2·39: Multisim screen for selecting and placing a resistor.

ahead of production (see Technology Brief 7 on page 135). the circuit window or the schematic capture window (see
With SPICE. you can draw a circuit from a library of MultisimTutoria1 on accompanying CD). Here. we wil l draw
components. specify how the components are connected, our circuits much as if we were drawi ng them on paper.
and ask the program 10 solve for all voltages and currents
al any poi nl in time. Modem SPICE packages like Multisim
include very intuitive graphic user interface (GU) lools that Step I: Placing Resistors in the Circu it
make both circuit design and ana lysis very easy. Multisim
Components in Multisim are organized into a hierarchy
allows the user 10 simulate a laboratory experience on his/her
going in a descending general orde r fro m Database-+
compUier ahead of actually worki ng with real componenlS.
Group -+ Famity -+ Component. Every component
In this section, you will learn how to :
that you use in Multisi m will fi l into this hierarchy
• Set up and analyze a simple de c ircuit in Multisim. somewhere.
• Use tile Measurement Probe tool 10 quickly solve for Place -+ Component opens the Select a Component
voltages and currents. window. (arl-W is the shortcut key for the place-
• Use the Ana1ysis tools for more comprehensive component command . Multisim has many shortcut
solutions. keys, and it will be worthwhile for you 10 learn some
of the basic ones to improve your efficiency in creating
We will return to these concepts and learn to apply many and testing circuits.)
other analysis tools throughout the book. Appendix C
provides an introduction to the Multisim Tutorial avai lable on Choose Database: Master Database and Group:
the CD that accompanies the book. 10e Tutorial is a useful Basic in the pulldown menus.
reference if you have never used Multisim before. When
defi ning menu selections starting from the main window, the Now select Family: RESISTOR.
(onnat Menu -+ Sub-Menul -+ Sub-Menu2 will be used.
You should see a long list of resistor values under
2-8.1 Drawing the Circuit Component and the schematic symbol for a resistor
(Fig. 2· 39). Noce that the Family menu contains other
After installi ng and runni ng Multisim, you will be presemed components Like inductors. capacitors. potentiometers,
with the basic user inter/ace wi ndow. also referred to as and many more. We will use these in later chapters.
70 CHAP'fER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

...... Il.....'L
!JR (dt .... !CIIa 8W ~ T..... s-ru a-- ..... tlIoIo
Or8Ii',..J.(l II 0 '. 81f1E1.,a '!I_ftr.,) ~lII a CJ •• I- "UooI.IIt ::=1 . ?
m n
·-*jI;~f>.!rJ D .t!Je- . 'I'& i !. r =5
(" . !..... , y...... - 'x
Node VI
I
I
f4 ... Tid!
'. Ii ~ ~ 'to • ." liI!!! a

R1
1kO

~-. - - -.-15- ....- node V2

..LV1 "''-1.
- Current through node YI
- 12
r 10 V Node V2 -

R2
1000

o
::L

,00COl.

"-Igu re 2-42: Solution window.

As expected. the current running through both wires is the paused, inorderfortheDC Operating Point Analysis mode
same since the circuit has only one loop. to work. J Under the Output tab. select the two node voltages
and the branch current in the Variables in Circuit window.
V, 10 Make sure the Variables in Circuit pull-down menu is set
I = = = 9.09 rnA .
R,+Ra 1000+ 100 to All Variables. Once selected, click Add and they will
The voltage al node I is 10 V. as defined by the source. appear in the Selected variables for analysis window.
Application of voltage division (Fig. 2-18) gives Once you have selected all of the variables for which you
want solutions. simply click Simulate. Multisim then solves
V2 =( R,
R ,+ R2
)v,=(IOO)lO=O.909V.
11 00
the entire circuit and opens a window showing the values of
the selected voltages and currents (Fig. 2-42).
DC Operating Point Anal y~i\
2-8.3 Dependent Sources
The circuit also can be solved using Simulate -+ Analyses
-+ DC Operating Point. This method is more convenient Multisim provides both defined dependent sources (voltage-
than the Interactive Simulation when solving circuits with controlled current, current-controlled current. etc.) and a
many nodes. After opening this window, you can specify generic dependent source whose definition can be entered as
which voltages and currents you want solved. [The a mathematical equation. We will use this second type in the
Interactive Simulation mode must be stopped. not just following example.
2-8 INTRODUCING MULTISIM
71

11- 3"V(2)
1 Rl 11
11<0 ~CURRENT

VI
-=- 10 V
2 ,
R2
0 1000

.' igure 2-43: Creating a dependent source.

Step 1: The dependenl sources are established as follows : To write the expression for II next to the curren! source,
Place -+ Component opens the Select a Component go to Place -+ Text. and then type in theexpression at a
window. location near the current source. [Ctrl-T is the shortcut
Choose Database: Master Database and Group: key for the place-text command.)
Sources in the pulldown menus.
Select Family: CONTROLLED_VOLTAGE or CON- Referencing Cum:n!s in Arbitrary Branches
TROLLED _CURRENT.
Under Component. select ABP-.·LVOlTAGE or Now let us analyze the circuit using the DC Operating Point
ABM_CURRENT and click OK. Analysis. Our goal is to solve ror the voltages at every node
The value of ABM sources (which stands for and the curren! running through each branch . Remove the
Analog Behavioral Modeling) can be set directly with probe from the circuit if you stili have it in there by clicking
mathematical expressions using any variables in the on it so it is highlighted and pressing the Delete key.
circuit. For infonnation on the variable nomenclature. To perfonn a DC operating point analysis, just as we did
which may be somewhat confusing, see the Muhisim earlier in Section 2-8.2. go to Simulate -+ Analyses -+
Tutorial on the CD-ROM. DC Operating Point and transrer all available variables into
the Selected variables tor analysis window. You should
Step 2: Usi ng what you learned in Section 2-8. 1, draw
notice thai the only variables avai lable are V(I). V(2), and
the circuit shown in Fig. 2-43 (including the probe nt
I(v I); ir Probe I is still connected to your circuit, you should
node 2).
also see 1(Probe I) and V(Probe I). Where are the other
Step 3: Double-click. the ABM_CURRENT source. Under currents. such as the current Howing through R I, the current
the value tab, enter: 3·V(2). The expression V(2) refers through R2. or even the current coming OUt of the dependent
to the voltage at node 2. This effectively defines this source? In Multisim and most SPICE software in general,
source as a voltage-controlled current source. Note that you can only measure/manipulate currents through a Voltage
when making the circuit, if the node numbering in your Source (there are some exceptions. but we will ignore them
circuit differs from that in the example (e.g.• if nodes I for now). This is why the current through VI, denoted I(vl).
and 2 are switched). then take care to keep track of the is available but the cUlTents through the other components
differences so that you will use the proper node voltage are not A simple trick, however. to obtain these currents is
when writing the equation. To edit or change node to add a 0 V de source into the branches where you want to
labels. double-click any wire to open the Net Window. measure current. Do this to your circuit, so thai it ends up
Under Net name enter the label you like for that node. looking like that shown in Fig. 2-44.
72 CHAPTER 2 RES ISTIVE CIRCUITS

Exercise 2·17: TIle c ircuit in Fig. E2.17 is called a

resistive bridge. How does Vx = (V3 - V2 ) vary with
V2 the value of potentiometer RI '1
-=-0 v
I J
R1
11<0

V1
2
-==- 10V '!II • • • ,). ii- II a0 .. _I -'UOOI.iII
V4
-=- 0 v
5
.,
R2
1000 I

•
0 R2
* R1 1kG
1kG
ngure 1-4l: Circuit from Fig. 2-43 adap(ed to read out the - e-~~ 2 KeyaA 3
curren ts through R I, R2. and the dependent source.
R4 R3
1kG 1ka
0
T
You will notice (hal there are new nodes in the circuit
now. but since V2. V3, and V4 are 0 V sources,
,•
V(3) = V(4) = V(I ) and V(5) = V(2).
Go back 10 the DC Operating Point Analysis window
and under the Variables in Circuit window there should now figure £2.17
be four currents (I(vl ), l(v2), I(v) . and l(v4» and the five
voltages. Highl ight all four currents as well as V( 1) and V(2)
and click Add and then click OK. This will bring up the
Grapher window with the resu hs of the analysis.
Note that when we analyze the currents through the Exerel•• 2·18: Simulate the circuit shown in
bronches. the currenl through a voltage source is defined as Fig. E2.18 and solve it for the voltage across RJ. The
going imo the positive tenninal. For example, in source V I. magnitude of the dependent cunent source is VI / 100.
this corresponds to the currenl flowing/rom Node I into VI
and then oul of V I to Node O. R,
I 2 3

v,
12 v
R,
loon
-+, Ion
ABM .... BM_CUIUtENT R) In
0 T 4
Review Question 2~20: In Multisim, how "'" - -
componenrs placed and wired into circui rs? Figure fl.18

Review Question 2·21 : How do you obtain and

visualize the circuit solution? Ans,.,u: (See .o)
CHAPTER HI GHLlG HTS
73

Chapter 2 Relationships
linear rt'Sistor R=pl/ A ,"oUage di\iision
P =,-"R

Kirchhoff current law (KCL)

;,. = current entering node n

Current dhision
Kirchhoff \'oltage law (KVL)

VII = vohllge across branch n

Resistor combinations

In ·series
Sourt'(' trans(omlation
R.
In parallel
1
Req = r;
N
N 1
R,
,.~ "
'" G.. = LG,
i_ I
y-~ transformation Table 2--6

Wheatstone bridge (Fig. 2· 32) ""

-"" -
u..- ~40 ("RR)

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

• As described by Ohm's law, the i- v relationship o f a voltage source by an equivalent real current source, and
resistor is linear over a specific range (- ;nux to +;max): vice versa.
however, R may vary with temperature (thermistors)
and pressure (piezoresislOrs). • A Y circuit configuration can be transformed into a t:J,.
configuration, and vice versa.
• Circuit topology defines the relationships between
nodes, loops, and branches. • The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit used to measure
resistance. as well as to detect small deviations (from a
• Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws form the reference condition), as in strain gauges and other types
foundation of circuit analysis and synthesis. of sensors.

• Nonlinear resistive elements include the light hlIlb. the

• Two circuits are considered equivalent if they exhibit
fuse. the diode. and the light-emitting diode (LED).
identical i- v characteristics relative to an external
circuit. • Multisim is a software simulation program capable
of simulating electric circuits and analyzing their
• Source transformation allows us to represent a real behavior.
74 C HAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

GLOSSARY OF IMPORTANT TERMS

Provide defi nitions or explain the meaning of the followi ng terms:

balanced bridge circuit loop resisti vity

brnnch mechanica1 stress reverse bias
circuit equivalence """h rheostat
conducti vity Multisim semiconductor
curren! divider node sensitivity
dielectric overcurrent source transformation
diode path superconductor
forward bias piezoresistive coeffi cienl thennistor
r"s< piezoresistor topology
insulator planar circu it voltage divider
KCL potentiometer Wheatstone bridge
KVL power rating Y-lJ. transformation
LED resistance

I
PROBLEMS (a) Develop an expression for the resistance R.
{b} Calculate R al 200C for a = 2 em. b = 3 em and
Section 2· 1: Ohm's Law l = lOem.

- 2.1 An AWG- 14 copper wire has a resistance of 17.1 Qat

20"C. How long is it? camon,,,,);';::==:..!.t.:::.==~'.'
2.2 A 3-km long AWG-6 metallic wire bas a resistance of r;, ------------ - ----i, -. 2a.1.T2b
approximately 6 11 a120"C. What material is it made of'! Hollow t\J -------------- --..:,i•..l
2.3 A thin-fi lm resistor made of gennanium is 2 mm in length
Tl
and its rectangular cross section is 0.2 mm )( I mm, as shown Figure 1'2.4: Carbon resistor of Problem 2.4.
in Fig. P2 .3. Detcnnine the resistance that an ohmmeter would
measure if connected across its: 2.S A standard model used to descri be the variation of
(a) Top and bottom surfaces res istance with temperatu re T is given by

"(b) Front and back surfaces

R = Ro(1 + aT).
(e) Right and left surfaces

, where R is the resistance at temperature T ( measured in

°e), Ro is the resistance al T = O"e, and a is a temperature

t==~2=mm==~~'I~_ Y
coefficient. For copper. a = 4 )( IO- J o C- I . At what
~ temperature is the resistance greater than Ro by I percent?

0.2mm T x c:===~mm
1 2.6 A light bulb has a filament whose resistance is
characterized by a temperature coefficient a = 6 )( IO- Jo C- 1
(see resistance model given in Problem 2.5). The bulb is
connected to a lOO-V household voltage source via a switch.
Figure P23: Film resistor of Problem 2.3.
After turning on the swilCh. the temperature of the filament
2.4 A resistor of length t consists of a hollow cylinder of increases rapidl y from the initial room temperature of 200C
radius a surrounded by a layer of carbon that extends from to an operating temperature of lSOO"C. When it reaches its
r = a to r = h, as shown in Fig. P2A . operating temperature, it consumes 80 W of power.
• Answer(l) in Appendb: E.
 PROBLEMS
75

<a) Detennine the filament resistance at 18OO"C. 2.12 Verify Eq. (2.9) for the circuit in Fig. n .J I.
(b) Delennine the filament resistance at room temperature.
(c) Detennine the currenl thai the filament draws at room
temperature and also at ISOOOC. 2.13 Delennine the current I in the circuit of Fig. n .!3 given
thai 10 = O.
(d) If the filament deteriorates when the currenl through it
approaches 10 A. is thedamagedone lathe filament greater
when it is first turned on or later when it arrives at its
operating temperature?

· 2.7 A I IO-V heali ng element in a stove can boi l a standard.

size pol of willer in 1.2 minutes. consuming a total of 136 kJ
of energy. Delennine the resistance of the healing element and
Hl -
1
•

the current fl owing through it. 24 V +

2.8 A certain copper wire has a resistance R characterized by
the model given in Problem 2.5 wilh a = 4 x IO- ) oC- I. If
R = 60 n at 200 e and the wire is used in a circuit that cannOI
tolerate an increase in the magnitude of R by more than 10
percent over its value at 200C. what would be the highest Figure n . B : Circuit for Problem 2. 13.
temperature at which the circuit can be operated within its
tolerance limits?
2. 14 Detennine currents II to I] in the circuit of Fig. Pl.14.

Sectio ns 2-3 nnd 2-4: Topology and Ki rchhoff's Laws

IA
2.9 Verify Eq. (2.8) for the circuit in Fig. Pl.9.
-
H, H, 14
20
-JA

ql~
18 V + 80 120
+
-I H, H, - 70

-
H, I,
40

Figure 1'2.9: Circui1 for Problems 2.9 and 2.10. .-igure 1"1. 14: Circui1 for Problem 2. 14.

2.1 0 Verify Eq. (2.9) for the circuil in Fig. P2.9.

2. 11 Verify Eq. (2.8) for the circuit in Fig. Pl.1 J. - 2.15 Detennine Ix in the circuit of Fig. P2. 15.

R,

+
Vo .J. 50 ~ /, J.
12 V +
- 20 t JA
L r T
.-Igure P2.11 : Circui1 for Problems 2. 11 and 2.12. Figure 1'2. IS: Circuit for Problem 2. 1S.
76 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

2. 16 Determine currents I I to 14 in the circuit of Fig. P2. 16. 2.20 Find Vab in the circuit of Fig. P2.20.

1n
-
4A 80
20
20
a
+
20

+ 6V 12 V +
12 V + 5V - V••
.,.-
b
+-
Figu~ n.lO: Circuit for Problem 2.20.
folgun!: 1'2.16: Circuit for Problem 2.16.

2.21 Fi nd 1,10 I ) in the circuit of Fig. P2 .21.

2. 17 Determine currents I . to 14 in the circuit o f Fig. Pl. 17.

, ,
I I, II, 1'1 1'1 ..L
+ 16 V
3 k!l I
- p,- I 8V
- +
2k!l
)..
+ 12 V
20 40 1 6A
20 40 ..,.- 4k!l
T
-

Figure P2.21: Circuil for Probkm 2.21 .

"' Igun!: Pl.I': Circuit for Problem 2. 17.

2.22 Find I in the circuit of Fig. n .22.
2.1 8 Determine the amount of power dissipated in the 3-kO
resistor in the circuit of Fig. P2.1S.

I
21
.,r:::---=-=----< + -')-- -,
IOV + 30

Figure n .22 : Circuit for Problem 2.22.

"gure P2.tS: Circuit for Problem 2.18.
- 2.23 Determine the amount of power supplied by the
independent curren! source in the circuit of Fig. P2.23.
- 2. 19 Determine Ix and Jy in the circuit of Fig. P2.19.

lOV eD
20
o/VV'
-I,

1 40
60
o/VII'
-~ 4/'
I,
O.2A 1
V,
-
20

20
<I)

Figure Pl.19: Circuit for Problem 2. 19. Figure P1:.23: Circuit for Problem 2.23.
 PROBLEMS
77

Section 2-4: Equivalent Circuits 2.28 Detennine Rtq at tenninals (a, b ) In the circuit of
Fig. P2.28.

a ~--,,~~-, __ 80~~
2.24 Given that I I = I A In the circuit of Fig. P2.24.
detennine 10. R", _ HI 80
b ~ __- L ____ ~ ____ ~

Figure PZ.28: Circuit for Problem 2.28.

2.29 Select R in the circuit of Fig. P2.29 SO !bat VI.. = 5 V.

Figure 1'2.24: Circuit for Problem 2.24.

2.25 What should R be in the circuit of Fig. P2.25 so thai

Req=40?
SmA fI
R
S Iill 21dl
I Iill
VL
+

Figure P2.29: Circuit for Problem 2.29.

10
a o-----~~------~---- 2.30 If R = 12 0 in the circuit of Fig. P2.lO, find I .

60 R
b ~-------- __~~~

Figure P2.25: Circuit for Problem 2.25.

20V
2.26 Find 10 in !be circuit of Fig. P2.26.
-+

Vo
18A fT 120
40
60 30

t' gure 1'2.26: Circuit for Problem 2.26. Figure Pl.JO: Circuil for Problem 2.30.

2.3 I Use resistance reduction and source transformation to

- 2.27 For the circuit in Fig. P2.27. find Ix for t < 0 and t > O.
find Vx in the circuit of Fig. n .3 1. All resistance values are in
ohms.

-
I,

+ IS V 20
-
20 1- 0 I

2 30
40

40 40

FJgure 1'2.27: Circuil with SPDT switch for Problem 2.27. "' Igun! 1'2.3 1: Circuit for Problem 2.31.
78 C HAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

2.32 Determine A if Vood VI = 9 in the circuit of Fig. n .32. 2.37 Find Rcq for the circuit in Fig. P2 .37. All resistances are
in ohms.
30
p,
V. +
..l
<!
+
>--~ 5'-_""""=----- 10
R~ '~ 10cg~W
120 30 AI, 60 V
- 120
T 'I - :

Figure 1·2.32 : Circuit for Problem 2.32.

5 10
- 2.33 For the circuit in Fig. P2.33. fi nd Rcq al lerminals (0. b) , Figure 1'2.37: Circuil (or Problem 2.37.

2.38 Apply voltage and current d ivision to detennine Vo in

the circuit of Fig. P2.38 given that VOU1 = 0.2 V.

Figure 1'2.33: Circuit for Problems 2.33 and 2.34.

80

2.34 Find Req al lenninals (c. d ) in the circuit of Fig. P2.33. 40

2.35 Simplify the circuit to the right of terminals (a. b) in
+ V. 40 20
Fig. P2.35 to find Rcq. and then determine the amount of power
supplied by the voltage source. All resistances are in ohms.
- 20 +
10 V. u, - O.2V
a
3 .' igure 1'2.38: Circuit for Problem 2.38.
R~
25 V + •
b
Sections 2-5 and 2-6: V- A and Wheatstone Bridge
Figure P2.3S: Circuit ror Problem 2.35.

2.36 For the c ircuit in Fig. P2.36, determine Req at

-(a) Terminals (a, b) 2.39 Convert the circuit in Fig. P2.39(a) from a tJ. to a Y
(b) Terminals (a. c) configuration .
(e) Terminals (a. d )
(d ) Terminals (a. f)
a c a c
, f
20 80
20 20 20 40
20
d b d b d
20 20
20 20 (a) (b)
c
20 20 Figure Pl.J9: Circuit ror Problems 2.39 and 2.40.
a b
2.40 Convert the circuit in Fig. P2.39(b) from a T to a n
Figure P2.36: Circuit for Problem 2.36. configuration.
 PROBLEM S 79

*2.41 Find the power supplied by the generator in Fig. P2.41 . 2.47 Find Req for the circuit in Fig. P2.47.

10 60 60 ISO

20V + 60 60
- ISO
ISO
60 10
60 ISO
90
Jo' igure P2.41: Circuit for Problems 2.41 and 2.42.

2.42 Repeat Problem 2.4 1 after replacing RJ with a shon Jo' igure 1'2.47: Circuit for Problem 2.47.
circui!.

2.43 Find I in the circuit of Fig. P2.43. 2.48 Fi nd Req at tenninals (a , b) in Fig. P2.48 if

(a) Terminal c is connected to terminal d by a short c ircuit

90
(b) Terminal ~ is connected to terminal f by a short circuit
60 60
(e) Terminal c is connected to terminal ~ by a short circuit

-
90 3V 60 3V 90 All resistance values are in ohms.
I
- + -+

Figure P2.43: Circuit for Problem 2.43.

2.44 Find the power supplied by the voltage source In

Fig. P2.44.

4V
+
30 30

60 R - 60 60
f'lgure 1-2.48: Circuit for Problem 2.48.

Figure 1'2.44: Circuit for Problems 2.44 and 2.45.

2.49 For the Wheatstone-bridge circuit of Fig. 2-3 1. solve the
· 2.45 Repeal Problem 2.44 after replacing R with a short following problems.
circui!.
*(a) If RI = I n.
R2 = 2 n.
and Ril = 3 n.
to what vaJue
2.46 Find I in the circuit of Fig. P2.46. All resistances are in should RJ be adjusted so as to achieve a balanced
ohms. condition?

(b) IfVo = 6V, RQ = 0.1 n,and Ril were then to deviate bya

12 V +
1
-
I small amount to Ril = 3.01 n . what would be the reading
on the ammeler?

2.50 If Vo = 10 V in the Wheatstone-bridge circuit of

Fig. 2·32 and the minimum voltage Vout that a voltmeter can
read is I mY. what is the smal lest resistance fraction (ll. R j R)
Figun! 1'2.46: Circuit for Problem 2.46. that can be measured by the circuit?
•
80 CHAPTER 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Seelion 2-7: i -ll Relationships Section 2-8: Multisim

2.5 1 Detennine 11 and i2 in thecircuil orng. n .5 ! . Assume

VF = 0 .7 V for both d iodes. 2.S5 Use the DC Operating Point Analysis in Muhisim to
solve for voltage VOIU in the circuit of Fig. P2.55. Solve for Vout
S30:

6V
--/1 h

+
530:
by hand and compare with the value generated by Multisim. See
the solution for Exercise 2.17 (on 0 ) for how 10 incorpornte
circuit variables into algebraic expressions.

- r--- t-- - ---<l +

Ion
Figure " 2.5 1: Cirtuil fOf Problem 2.51.
2.5V ~
2.52 Detennine VI in the circuit of Fig. P2.S2. Assume
VF = 0 .7 V for all diodes.

so n
FI~u rc 1'1.55: Circuil for Problem 2.55.
+
lOon v, 2.56 Find the ratio VouEi Yin for the circuit in Fig. P2.56 using
DC Operating Po int Analysis in Multisim. See the Muhisim
Tutorial included on the CD on how to reference c urreOiS in
250
ABM sources (you should not just type in I(VI )).

Figul"\' '·2 ..52: Circuit for Problem 2.52. I k!l

2.53 If the voltage source in the circuit of Fig. P2.53 generates
+
a single square wave with an amplitude of 2 V. generate a plol
100/in Vout I ill
for lJout for the same time period.

+
+ loon
Hjtul"\' " 2.36: Circuit for Problem 2.56.

2.57 Use DC Operating Point Analysis in Multisi m to solve

for all six labeled resistor currents in the circuit of Fig. P2.S7.

2V t-- ,
T
I" I
---+----4---~r_---- ( In In
r.-
~
-2 V
I" I
IA U In In
"igul"\' " 153: Circuit and \'oltage wa\'eform for Problem 2.53. r--
+
2.5-l A touch sensor based on a piezofCsistor built into
a micrornechanical cantilever made of silicon is connected
I" ~
in a Wheatstone·bridge configuration with a \'0 = I V. If In In
L = 1..t4 em and \V = 1 Clll. what should the thickness H be
so that the touch sensor regi<;tcrs a voltage magnitude of 10 mV
when the touc h pressure is 10 N'! Hj!un' "2.57: Circuil for Problem 2.57.
PROBLEMS 81

2.58 Find the voltages across RI , R2, and RJ in the circuil 2.59 Find the equivalent resistance looking into the terminals
of Fig. P2.SS using the OC Operating Poinl Analysis tool in of the circuit in Fig. P2.59 using a test voltage source and current
Multisim. probes in the Interactive Simulation in Multisim. Compare the
answer you get to what you obtain from series and parallel
combining of resistors carried out by hand.
100 V ISO
R2 30!l 1.51

Figurr P258: Circuit for Problem 2.58.

R8
R6 Rl 121<0 4 R5
1 2 3
4.71<0 R7
11<0 10k0 5
121<0
R2 R3 R4
11<0 11<0 3.9kO

..L.

Figu~ P2.59: Circuit for Problem 2.59.