Instructional Material for Combustion Engineering

Lesson 1 – Mixture of Gases, Theoretical Cycles

Introduction:

In our use of the ideal gas law thus far, we have focused entirely on the properties of pure gases
with only a single chemical species. But what happens when two or more gases are mixed? In this
lesson, we describe how to determine the contribution of each gas present to the total pressure of the
mixture. Also, a revisit of the gas cycles used in Thermodynamics.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Practice the use of principles of ideal gases,

 Understand basic concepts, definition, and principles used in mixing gases.
 Evaluate gas cycle

Course Materials:

The ideal gas law assumes that all gases behave identically and that their behavior is
independent of attractive and repulsive forces. If volume and temperature are held constant, the ideal gas
equation can be rearranged to show that the pressure of a sample of gas is directly proportional to the
number of moles of gas present.
With this assumption, let’s suppose we have a mixture of two ideal gases that are present in
equal amounts. What is the total pressure of the mixture? Because the pressure depends on only the
total number of particles of gas present, the total pressure of the mixture will simply be twice the pressure
of either component. More generally, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases at a given
temperature and volume is the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas alone. Furthermore, if we know
the volume, the temperature, and the number of moles of each gas in a mixture, then we can calculate
the pressure exerted by each gas individually, which is its partial pressure, the pressure the gas would
exert if it were the only one present (at the same temperature and volume).
To summarize, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial
pressures of component gases. This law was first discovered by John Dalton, the father of the atomic
theory of matter. It is now known as Dalton’s law of partial pressures. We can write it mathematically as
Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases,
the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.

Formulas:

1. Partial Pressure
a. Total Pressure(Pm) = P1 + P2 + P3
b. Partial pressure of gas 1: P1 = %V1Pm
c. Partial pressure of gas 2: P2 = %V2Pm
d. Partial pressure of gas 3: P3 = %V3Pm
2. Percent Volume & Mass:
a. Total volume of gas mixture(Vm) = V1 + V2 + V3
i. Percent volume of gas 1 %V1 = V1/Vm = P1/Pm
ii. Percent volume of gas 2 %V2 = V2/Vm = P2/Pm
iii. Percent volume of gas 3 %V3 = V3/Vm = P3/Pm
b. Total mass of gas mixture(mm) = m1 + m2 + m3
i. Percent mas of gas 1 %m1 = m1/mm
ii. Percent mas of gas 2 %m2 = m2/mm
iii. Percent mas of gas 3 %m3 = m3/mm
 3. Conversion of volume to mass basis or vice versa
a. Conversion of volume to mass basis: multiply by molecular weight, V(M)
b. Conversion of mass to volume basis: divide molecular weight, m/M
4. Molecular weight (Mm)
a. If percent volume is given: Mm = %V1M1 + %V2M2 + %V3M3
1
b. If percent mass is given: Mm =%𝑚1 %𝑚2 %𝑚3
+ +
𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑀3

5. Gas constant R = 8.314/M

Thermodynamic Cycles

In analysis of heat engine or thermal engine, which may be defined as a closed system ( no mass
crosses its boundaries) exchanges only heat and work with its surroundings and that operates in cycles.
Gas cycles, will be about (1) the heat supplied to the cycle, (2) the heat rejected, (3) the net work,
(4) the efficiency and (5) the mean effective pressure.
The essential elements of a thermodynamic heat engine with a fluid as a working substance are:
(a) a working substance a matter that receives and rejects heat and does work: (b) a source of heat (c) a
heat sink (d) an engine

1. Carnot cycle - It consists of two isothermals and two isentropic. The heat absorbed along the
upper isothermal and the heat transformed into work, represented by the cycle area. The most
efficient thermodynamic cycle.

2. Stirling Cycle - the cycle is composed of two isothermal and two isometric process, the
regeneration occurring at constant volume.

3. Ericsson Cycle - the cycle consist of two isothermal and two isobaric process were the
regeneration occurring during constant pressure process.

4. Otto - Isentropic compression 1-2 is followed by ignition and rapid heating at constant volume 2-3.
This is followed by isentropic expansion, 3-4.

5. Diesel - In the diesel oil engine, air is compressed to a high pressure. Fuel is then injected into
the air, which is at a temperature above the ignition point, and it burns at nearly constant pressure
(2-3). Isentropic expansion of the products of combustion is followed by exhaust and suction of
fresh air, as in the Otto cycle.

6. Brayton - The Joule cycle, also called the Brayton cycle , consists of two isentropics and two
constant-pressure lines.
 7. Rankine – the ideal cycle for vapor power plants.

Watch:

Combustion Engineering Lesson 1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aaBSDeMHO3U&list=PL2XmbixFzql_QmRC9wccU6CXv
rGtCPf8Z
Sample Problems:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CcSh-HkMqyo&list=PL2XmbixFzql-
RuK2XLkALC6qO3QKjHBXF

Sample Activities/Assessments:
1. An ideal gas mixture consists of 2kmol of N2 and 6 kmol of CO2. The mass fraction of CO2 is:
2. From problem 1, the apparent gas constant of the mixture is: (answer in S.I. units)
3. Determine the partial pressure of CO2 for the following analysis of gas mixture by weight at 101
kPaa and 250C: CO2 = 35%, N2=65%
4. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2 lb of air between the limits of 70oF and 500oF. The pressure
at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 400 psia and at the end of isothermal expansion is
185 psia. Determine (a) the volume at the end of isothermal compression, (b) ∆S during an
isothermal process (c) QA (d) QR, (e) W, (f) e, (g) the ratio of compression during isothermal
heating and the overall ratio of expansion, and (h) the mean effective pressure.
5. An Otto cycle operates on 0.1 lb/s of air 13 psia and 130 oF at the beginning of compression. The
temperature at the end of combustion is 5000oR; compression ratio: hot-air standard, k =1.3 (a)
Find V1, P1, t2, P3, V3, t4, and P4. (b) Compute QA, QR, W, e and the corresponding hp.
6. A diesel cycle operates with compression ration of 13.5 and with a cutoff occurring 6% of the
stroke. State 1 is defined by 14 psia and 140 oF. For the hot air standard with k=1.34 and for an
initial 1 cu ft, compute (a) t2, P2, V2, t3, V3, P4, and t4 (b) QR (c) W (d) e and Pm (e) for a rate of
circulation of 1000 cfm, compute the horsepower.
7. The intake of the compressor of an air-standard Brayton cycle is 40,000 cfm at 15 psia and 90 oF.
The compression ratio is 5 and the temperature at the turbine inlet is 1440 oF. The exit pressure of
the turbine is 15 psia. Determine the net work, thermal efficiency and the mean effective
pressure.
8. Steam is generated at 4.1MPa and 440OC and condensation occurs at 0.105 Mpa (a) For a
Rankine engine operating between these limits, compute the thermal efficiency and the heat rate.
(b) Considering that a Rankine cycle occurs between same limits, determine QA, QR, Wnet, and
e (c) What mass flow rate is required for a net output of 30,000kW?
Lesson 2 – Engine Testing and Performance

Introduction:

An engine is a power generating machine. It converts potential energy of the fuel into heat energy
and then into rotary motion. The lesson may include the variables like indicated power, brake power,
brake specific fuel consumption, exhaust emissions, cooling of engine, maintenance free operation etc.
The other task of the development engineer is to reduce the cost and improve power output and reliability
of an engine. In trying to achieve these goals he has to try various design concepts.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Understand basic concepts, definition, and principles used in Testing External and Internal
Combustion Engine,
 Evaluate variables of and engine such as like indicated power, brake power, brake specific fuel
consumption, exhaust emissions, cooling of engine, maintenance free operation etc.

Course Materials:

Engine Performance

An indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its assigned task, i.e. the conversion of the
chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work.

The performance of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the following:

a) Specific Fuel Consumption

b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure

c) Specific Power Output

d) Specific Weight

e) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions

For the evaluation of an engine performance, few more parameters are chosen. The basic performance
parameters are the following:
a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency

b) Mean Effective Pressure

c) Specific Output

d) Volumetric Efficiency

e) Fuel Ratio

f) Specific Fuel Consumption

g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance

 h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions

i) Specific Weight

Power and Mechanical Efficiency

The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power. Power is defined as the
rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and linear velocity or the product of torque and
angular velocity. Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well
as speed. The force or torque is measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a
tachometer.
Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)
Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is the mean effective pressure calculated from the
dynamometer power (torque). This is the actual output of the internal combustion engine, at
the crankshaft. Brake mean effective pressure takes into account the engine efficiency.

Please note that BMEP is purely theoretical and has NOTHING to do with ACTUAL CYLINDER
PRESSURES. It is simply a tool to evaluate the efficiency of a given engine at producing torque
from a given displacement.

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)

Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) is the mean effective pressure calculated with indicated
power (work). This parameter does not take into account the efficiency of the engine.

Friction mean effective pressure (FMEP) is an indicator of the mean effective pressure of the engine lost
through friction and it’s the difference between indicated mean effective pressure and brake mean
effective pressure.

FMEP=IMEP−BMEP

Friction Power is the power lost especially in an internal-combustion engine through friction between parts
of the machine itself.

F.P. = I.P. — B.P.

Torque is the name given to a force applied through a radius to produce a turning moment. It also can be
defined as the tendency of a force to rotate an object around a pivot.

T=F * r

where T is torque, N-m

F is the net load acting on the brake drum, N
r is the radius of the brake drum, m
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY, nm - Is the ratio of the brake power to the indicated power.
Nm = Pb / Pind
where: Pb - brake power
Pind – indicated power
GENERATOR EFFICIENCY , Ng - Is the ratio of the generator output to the brake power.
nG = Pgen / Pb
Where: Pb – brake power
Pgen – generator ouput
THERMAL EFFICIENCIES
Thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work done by a heat engine to the heat supplied by the fuel.
Indicated thermal efficiency - Is the ratio indicated power to the heat supplied by the fuel.
eti = Pind / mf Qh
Where:
Pind - indicated power Qh – heating value of fuel
mf - mass flow rate of fuel

Brake thermal efficiency - Is the ratio of the brake power to the heat supplied by the fuel.
etb = Pb / mf Qh
Where: Pb - brake power Qh - heating value of fuel
mf - mass flow rate of fuel

Combined thermal efficiency - Is the ratio of the generator output to the heat supplied by the fuel.
etc = Pgen / mf Qh
Where: Pgen - generator ouput Qh - heating value of fuel
mf - mass flow rate of fuel

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY nv (air only) - Is the ratio of the volume of air entering into a cylinder to the
piston displacement.
nv = Va / VD
Va = ma Ra Ta / Pa = volume of air
VD = piston displacement

Specific fuel consumption is the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power developed. It is also
known as specific propellant consumption
Indicated specific fuel consumption =Mf(3600)/IP = Mf(3600)/Pmi (Vd)
Where: Pmi = indicated mean effective pressure

Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is a measure of the fuel efficiency of any prime mover that burns
fuel and produces rotational, or shaft power.

It is typically used for comparing the efficiency of internal combustion engines with a shaft output.
It is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced.

BSFC=Mf(3600)/BP = Mf(3600)/Pmb (Vd)

Where: Pmb = brake mean effective pressure

Combined specific fuel consumption (csfc) =Mf(3600)/GENERATOR OUTPUT

Heat rate is one measure of the efficiency of a generator or power plant that converts a fuel into heat and
into electricity.

The heat rate is the amount of energy used by an electrical generator or power plant to generate one
kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity

Indicated heat rate (ihr) =Mf(3600)Qh/IP = Mf(3600) Qh /Pmi (Vd)

Where: Pmi = indicated mean effective pressure

Engine heat rate (ehr) =Mf(3600)Qh/IP = Mf(3600) Qh /Pmb (Vd)

Where: Pmb = indicated mean effective pressure

Engine – generator heat rate (eghr) = Mf(3600)Qh/Generator Output

Generator speed (n) =120f/P
Where:
N=speed, rpm
f= frequency = 60Hz (if not given)
P= no. of poles (must be even nos.)

Heat Balance
The performance of an engine is usually studied by heat balance-sheet. The main components of
the heat balance are:
 Heat equivalent to the effective (brake) work of the engine.
 Heat rejected to the cooling medium.
 Heat carried away from the engine with exhaust gases, and
 Unaccounted losses.

External Combustion

An external combustion engine is a heat engine where an (internal) working fluid is compressed
and heated by combustion of an external fuel through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then,
by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine (piston or turbine), produces a shaft power.
Steam engines and Stirling engines are the best known examples of external combustion engines

Flue gas is the byproduct of combustion, normally vented through long pipes known as flues,
which exhaust gases from fireplaces, ovens, furnaces, boilers or steam generators. These gases are
treated as pollutants. Flue gas often refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants.

Measuring the exhaust gas is an excellent way to optimize fuel and air input. Furnaces, heaters,
and boilers burn fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce heat. Achieving an intelligent balance of fuel
and air will provide the most efficient combustion and highest cost savings.

Components of Flue Gas

Primarily made up of compounds of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. The components
that are of interest because they effect efficiency are primarily oxygen (O) and carbon (C). The
components that are of interest from an environmental perspective are nitrous-oxides (NOx), carbon-
dioxide (CO2), carbon-monoxide (CO) and sulfur-dioxide (SO2) – if the fuel source is oil or coal.

Watch:

Combustion Engineering Lesson 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Plvghmy7L-
8&list=PL2XmbixFzql_QmRC9wccU6CXvrGtCPf8Z&index=2
Sample Problems:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQRcObmc_Dw&list=PL2XmbixFzql-
RuK2XLkALC6qO3QKjHBXF&index=2
Sample Activities/Assessments:

1. Determine the volumetric efficiency of 35cm x 45cm , 4 stroke 1200rpm , 8 cylinder diesel engine
if the air drawn in the engine is 3m^3/s
2. A four cylinder, 4 stroke cycle, 20cm x 25cm x 55rpm diesel engine has a mean effective
pressure of 150psi. If the heat supplied is 50kW, what is the indicated heat rate?
3. What is the mechanical efficiency of a 0.5 MW diesel engine if the friction power is 70KW.
4. A four stroke 8 cylinder diesel engine with bore and stroke of 9 inches and 12 inches respectively
and speed of 950rpm has a brake mean effective pressure of 164psi. The specific fuel
comsumption is 0,39 lb/bhp-hr and the fuel heating value is 18,500 Btu/lb. Determine the thermal
efficiency.
5. A 305 mm x 457 mm four stroke single acting diesel engine is rated at 150KW at 260rpm. Fuel
consumption at rated load is 0.26 kg/KW-hr with a heating value of 43,912 kJ/kg. Calculate the
brake heat rate.
6. A gasoline engine works on Otto cycle. It consumes 8 liters of gasoline per hour and develops
power at the rate of 25kW. The specific gravity of gasoline is 0.8 and its calorific value is 44000
kJ/kg. Find the indicated thermal efficiency engine.
7. A 30,000 kW existing plant has the following throttle conditions: Ps = 1.5 MPa ts= 260 degrees
celcius The steam rate of this plant is 5.67 Kg/KWh. An additional 12,500 Kw is wanted from this
superposed unit using an average indicated engine efficiency of 78% and a mechanical-electrical
efficiency of 96%, estimate the steam conditions of the superposed plant.
Lesson 3 – Combustion of Fuels

Introduction:

Combustion takes place when fuel, most commonly a fossil fuel, reacts with the oxygen in air to
produce heat. The heat created by the burning of a fossil fuel is used in the operation of equipment such
as boilers, furnaces, kilns, and engines. Along with heat, CO2 (carbon dioxide) and H2O (water) are created
as byproducts of the exothermic reaction
The objective of combustion is to retrieve energy from the burning of fuels in the most efficient
way possible. To maximize combustion efficiency, it is necessary to burn all fuel material with the least
amount of losses. The more efficiently fuels are burned and energy is gathered, the cheaper the
combustion process become.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Analyze and solve problems involving Combustion of fuels

Course Materials:

Complete combustion occurs when 100% of the energy in the fuel is extracted. It is important to strive for
complete combustion to preserve fuel and improve the cost efficiency of the combustion process. There
must be enough air in the combustion chamber for complete combustion to occur. The addition of excess
air greatly lowers the formation of CO (carbon monoxide) by allowing CO to react with O2. The less CO
remaining in the flue gas, the closer to complete combustion the reaction becomes. This is because the
toxic gas carbon monoxide (CO) still contains a very significant amount of energy that should be
completely burned.

Stoichiometric combustion is the theoretical point at which the fuel to air ratio is ideal so that there is
complete combustion with perfect efficiency. Although stoichiometric combustion is not possible, it is
striven for in all combustion processes to maximize profits.

Properties of Fuel Oils

Definitions
 Specific gravity - the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard, usually water
for a liquid or solid, and air for a gas.
 Density - degree of consistency measured by the quantity of mass per unit volume.
 Viscosity- the state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency, due to internal friction.
 Flash Point - the temperature at which a particular organic compound gives off sufficient vapor to
ignite in air.
 Fire Point- The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will
continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame.
 Pour Point – the lowest temperature at which a substance flows under specified conditions.
 Specific Heat - the heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a given substance
by a given amount (usually one degree).
 Calorific Value - the energy contained in a fuel, determined by measuring the heat produced by
the complete combustion of a specified quantity of it.
  Sulfur Content - The quantity of sulfur in coal expressed in percent or parts per million. May be
divided into the quantities occurring as inorganic (pyritic) sulfur, organic sulfur, and sulfate sulfur.

Properties of Fuel Oils

Density at 15.6C (kg/L) - This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at
a reference temperature of 15.6°C. The knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations and
assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/L

 Hydrometer - Simplest method of determining gravity oil at 15.6C is referred to the density of
water taken at 15.6C if measurement is taken at other temperatures, the volumetric coefficient
expansion of oil is 0.0007 per Cg units are marked at degrees where it is expressed in Baume or
API units. The common unit of measure for oil sales is volumetric, either the litre or the “barrel”
which is 159 litres (42 U.S gallons). The pricing on such a volumetric basis is commonly made at
a 15.6C volume, and the volume therefore sold in any case is the actual volume delivered
corrected by a coefficient of expansion.

 API GRAVITY - American Petroleum Institute gravity. It's a measure of how heavy or light a
petroleum liquid is compared to water. If its API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats
on water. If less than 10, it is heavier and sinks
 API Gravity moves inversely proportional to density, which means the denser an oil is, the lower
its API gravity will be. An API of 10 is equivalent to water.
Crude oil: is classified as light, medium or heavy, according to its measured API gravity.

The more API gravity value of crude oil is more expensive and more effectual because its contain
more gasoline and it is the most wanted product at the whole world. The other advantage of API gravity
value that we can determine the sulphur contain in crude oil , the higher value if API gravity means the
less contain of sulfur , the high levels of sulfur contains can be toxic and dangerous and can cause
breathing hazards .

Calorific Value (kJ/kg)

 The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced. Its is gathered with a use of a
bomb calorimeter and the resulting data from that is called the Higher Heating Value (HHV)

Exothermic Reaction
• An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction in which less energy is needed to break bonds in the
reactants than is released when new bonds form in the products.

• During an exothermic reaction, energy is constantly given off, often in the form of heat.
 • All combustion reactions are exothermic reactions. During combustion, a substance burns as it
combines with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and light.

A simple combustion reaction is given for methane. The combustion of methane means that it is
possible to burn it. Chemically, this combustion process consists of a reaction between methane and
oxygen in the air. When this reaction takes place, the result is carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and a
great deal of energy. The following reaction represents the combustion of methane:

CH4 + 2 O2 -> CO2 + 2 H2O + energy

Watch:

Combustion Engineering Lesson 3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9dBxUPFczI&list=PL2XmbixFzql_QmRC9wccU6CXvrGt
CPf8Z&index=3
Sample Problems
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-CVtnXdSm-E&list=PL2XmbixFzql-
RuK2XLkALC6qO3QKjHBXF&index=3

Sample Activities/Assessments:

1. Write out the combustion equation for C8H18

2. A fuel contains by mass 88% C, 8%H2, 1%S and 3% ash (silica). Calculate the stoichiometric air.
3. A fuel is a mixture of 60% Methane and 30% carbon monoxide and 10% oxygen by volume.
Calculate the stoichiometric oxygen needed.
4. Methane is burned with 18 % excess air in respect of volume. Determine the carbon dioxide
percentage in the flue gas dry basis.
5. Calculate the percentage excess air for methane burning. The flow rate of methane and air are 25
and 290m3 /h respectively.