19EPH137 - FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS

UNIT I: OSCILLATIONS

Periodic Motion

If an object repeats its motion along a specific path, about a certain point, in a fixed interval of
time, the motion of such an object is known as periodic motion.
Examples of periodic motions are the motion of a pendulum, the movement of spring, the
vibration of a guitar string, the rotation of the Earth over its axis, the revolving of the Earth
around the Sun, etc.

Simple harmonic motion:

The motion that is taking place in the back and forth direction about the mean position is known
as the oscillatory motion. If this oscillatory motion is periodic, then it is said to be the Simple
harmonic motion.

The characteristics of the Simple harmonic motion would be

1) the motion of the body is periodic.

2) the motion of the body is to and fro along a straight line about mean position
3) acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the displacement of the body
4) acceleration is always directed towards the equilibrium position

1. Periodic motion:
The motion should be periodic, which means motion should repeat itself after the fixed interval
of time. Furthermore, this interval is known as the period of the motion.

2. Oscillatory motion:
The motion should be oscillatory, which means the object should move back and forth about
the mean position.

A motion repeating itself is referred to as periodic or oscillatory motion. An object in such

motion oscillates about an equilibrium position due to a restoring force or torque. Such force
or torque tends to restore (return) the system toward its equilibrium position no matter in which
direction the system is displaced. This motion is essential to study many phenomena including
weights on springs, pendulums, alternating current circuits (LC circuits), electromagnetic
waves, molecules, etc.

3. Acceleration:
The acceleration of the object must be toward the center (mean position) or the equilibrium
position.
It should follow the following expression: a = −ω x
2

where ω is the angular frequency, and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position.

Difference between Periodic and Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic Motion Simple Harmonic Motion

In the periodic motion, the displacement of In the simple harmonic motion, the
the object may or may not be in the direction displacement of the object is always in the
of the restoring force. opposite direction of the restoring force.

Also, the periodic motion may or may not be And, the simple harmonic motion is always
oscillatory. oscillatory.

Periodic motion examples are the motion of Simple harmonic motion examples: the
the hands of a clock, the motion of the wheels motion of a pendulum, motion of a spring,
of a car, etc. etc.

Concepts of Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)

• Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position or

mean position is its amplitude, and its direction is always away from the mean or
equilibrium position. Its S.I. unit is the meter.
• Period: The time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation is its period. Therefore,
the period of S.H.M. is the least time after which the motion will repeat itself. Thus, the
motion will repeat itself after nT, where n is an integer.
 • Frequency: The frequency of S.H.M. is the number of oscillations that a particle
performs per unit time. The S.I. unit of frequency is hertz or r.p.s(rotations per second).
• Phase: Phase of S.H.M. is its state of oscillation, and the magnitude and direction of
displacement of particles represent the phase. Epoch(𝜙𝜙) is the phase at the beginning
of the motion.

Free Vibrations
When a system vibrates, a restoring force must be present. In addition to that force, there is
always a retarding or damping force, such as friction. If the effect of the damping force is small
and can be neglected, then the motion is classified as free and undamped motion.

Forced Vibrations
If a driving force that does positive work on the system exists, the motion is classified as forced
vibration. This force may be applied externally to the system or sometimes is produced within
the system.

Spring-Mass System

Consider a block of mass m attached to a massless vertical spring of spring constant k that is
fixed at the other end; it will stretch a distance Δx because of the weight of the mass.

That stretch is given by Δx = mg/k. k is the spring constant of the spring.

When the spring is elongated by a length x’, the by virtue of elasticity of the spring which acts
as restoring force, makes the spring-mass system to regain the equilibrium length. This
restoring force is proportional to the displacement of the spring in case of stretched as well as
compressed configurations.
The spring is now exerting a force of
Fspring = − k x
Fspring = − k ( x ' + ∆x)
Fspring = − k x ' − k ∆x
Fspring = − k x ' – mg
When we add in the force of gravity, we have
 = Fnet Fspring + mg
Fnet = − k x ' − mg + mg
Fnet = − k x '
nd
According to Newton's 2 law of mechanics, the net force acting on the body is given by
𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚 2
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
2
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘
+ 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥
+ 𝜔𝜔2 𝑥𝑥 = 0 − (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
𝑘𝑘
𝜔𝜔2 =
𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝑘
𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = �
𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�
𝑘𝑘
The general solution of the differential equation (1) is
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐1 cos𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑐𝑐2 sin𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Which can also be written as

where 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)

𝐴𝐴 = �𝑐𝑐12 + 𝑐𝑐22
𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2
cos𝜙𝜙 = ; sin𝜙𝜙 =
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝜙𝜙 is the phase angle
A and ϕ can be determined from the initial conditions, i.e., from the values of the displacement
and velocity when the motion starts.
The phase constant ϕ determines the position and velocity of the oscillating particle at t = 0.

Phase relates to an angular term which represents the situation of a particle in SHM at a
certain instant

Characteristics of simple harmonic motion:

1. Displacement: The displacement of any particle at any instant executing S.H.M is

=
given by x a sin (ωt + φ )
The maximum displacement from the mean positions is called amplitude (a).

Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the object from equilibrium, either in the
positive or negative x-direction—units meters or m.
2. Velocity: The velocity v of the oscillating particle can be obtained by differentiating
dx
expression for displacement, v = = ω a cos (ωt + φ ) = ω a 2 − x 2
dt
At the mean position, i.e., at x=0, the velocity is maximum ωa. The velocity is zero at
the extreme positions.
d 2x
3. Acceleration: The differential equation of linear S.H.M. is + ( k / m) x =
0
dt 2
where d2x/dt2 is the acceleration of the particle, x is the displacement of the particle, m
is the mass of the particle and k is the force constant. We know that k/m = ω2 where ω
is the angular frequency.
d 2x
Therefore, 2 + ω 2 x = 0
dt
d 2x
Hence, acceleration of S.H.M. = 2 = − ω 2 x = − ω 2 a sin (ωt + φ ) .
dt
The negative sign indicated that acceleration and displacement are in the opposite
direction of each other.

4. Time period: Time taken for one complete oscillation is called a time period and is
denoted by T.
2π displacement
T = 2π
=
ω acceleration
5. Frequency: The number of oscillations made by the oscillator in one second is called
as frequency.
1 ω
n= =
T 2π
6. Phase: Phase of a body executing SHM at any instant represents its state as regards its
position and direction at that instant. (ωt + φ )
The quantity φ is called the phase constant. It is determined by the initial conditions
of the motion. If at t = 0, the object has its maximum displacement in the positive x-
direction, then φ = 0, if it has its maximum displacement in the negative x-direction,
then φ = π. If at t = 0, the particle is moving through its equilibrium position with
maximum velocity in the negative x-direction, then φ = π/2.
Variation of Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration with time of a SHO:

Problem 1
(a) A spring stretches by 0.015 m when a 1.75 kg object is suspended from its end. How
much mass should be attached to the spring so that its frequency of vibration is f = 3.0 Hz?

(b) An oscillating block-spring system has a mechanical energy of 1.00 J, an amplitude of

10.0 cm, and a maximum speed of 1.20 m/s. Find the spring constant, the mass of the block,
and the frequency of oscillation.

Problem 2
A 0.45 kg mass is attached to a spring with a force constant of 26.0 N/m and released from
rest a distance of 3.25 cm from the equilibrium position of the spring. (a) What is the period
of the mass? (b) Use conservation of energy to find the speed of the mass when it is halfway
to the equilibrium position. (c) What is the maximum speed of the mass? (d) What is the
magnitude of the maximum acceleration of the mass?
Effective Mass of an Oscillating Spring

In general, the mass of the spring has to be considered while calculating the time-period of the
spring-mass system. By applying the energy consideration we shall consider the effect of the
mass of the spring.

Consider a mass M is suspended from the end of a spring of mass m. If M >> m, the spring is
stretched uniformly along its length. Let l be the length of the spring as shown in the figure.
Consider a small element ds of the spring at a distance of s from the upper end.

Mass per unit length of the spring = (m/l)

Mass of the small element of length ds = ds*(m/l)

The body of mass M suspended from the spring pulled down and released.
Let the velocity of lower end of the spring at any instant be v. the velocity is zero at the upper
vs
end of the spring. The velocity of the element ds under consideration is u=
l
2
1  m * ds   vs 
The kinetic energy of the element at time t is given by KE =  * 
2 l   l 
Hence the total kinetic energy of the spring alone at that instant is
2
1  m * ds   vs 
l
KEtotal =∫  * 
0
2  l   l 
1
= mv 2
6
The kinetic energy of suspended mass = ½ Mv2.
1  m
The total kinetic energy of the spring-mass system = v 2  M + 
2  3
When the mass of the system is at a distance x from its position of rest, the potential energy
(elastic) of the system is U=1/2 k x2
k – spring constant.
=E KE + U
1 2 m 1
The total energy of the system is= v  M +  + kx 2
2  3 2
2
1 m   dx  1
=  M +    + kx 2
2 3   dt  2
Differentiating the total energy with time t and equating it to zero, we get
d 2x k
+ x=0
dt 2
 m
 M + 3 
d 2x
Comparing this with 2 + ω 2 x = 0
dt
 m
 M +
2π 3 
T = 2π
We get time period=
ω k
This equation shows that one third the mas of spring has to be added to the suspended mass
M. So, when the effective mass of spring is taken into consideration, the time period of the
vertical spring mass system increases or frequency decreases.
 Damped Harmonic Oscillator

Consider the mass-spring system, body of mass m attached to spring with spring constant k is
released from position x0 (measured from equilibrium position) with velocity v; the mass is
subject to a frictional damping force which opposes its motion and is directly proportional to
its instantaneous velocity Fres = − γv – (1).

The total force on the body is the sum of the restoring force F = −kx , and the resistive force
Fres. The net force acting on the oscillator is given by
Fnet = F + Fres = −kx − γ v − (2)
d 2x
But F=
net = m
ma − (3)
dt 2
Using eqns (2) and (3) we have
d 2x dx
m 2 +γ + kx =0 − (4)
dt dt
d 2x dx
Or 2 + 2b + ω02 x =− 0 (4)
dt dt
Where 2b = γ /m – damping coefficient and ω0 =√k/m – natural frequency of an undamped
oscillator

The solution of damped harmonic oscillator equation:

Let x ( t ) = Ceα .t , then
On differentiation, we get, {α 2 + 2α b + ω02 } Ceα t =
0

The solution (for ω) from the quadratic formula is, α =−b ± b 2 − ω02

Thus, the =
solution is x (t ) a=
( b −ω )t
− bt
e e
± 2 2
0
a e − bt e ± iωd t

ωd
Where = ω02 − b 2
Conditions
The physical situation has three possible results depending on the value of α, which depends
on the value of what is under our radical. This expression can be positive, negative, or equal to
zero, which will result in overdamping, underdamping, and critical damping, respectively.

1. b 2 > 4ω02 is the Over Damped case. In this case, the system returns to equilibrium by
exponentially decaying towards zero. The system will not pass the equilibrium
position more than once.
2. b 2 < 4ω02 is the Under Damped case. In this case, the system oscillates as it slowly
returns to equilibrium and the amplitude decreases over time.
3. b 2 = 4ω02 is the Critically Damped case. In this case, the system returns to equilibrium
very quickly without oscillating and without passing the equilibrium position at all.

1. Over Damped case

Condition is b 2 > 4ω02
β
Let= b 2 − ω02
v0
=
And v=v0 at t=0, then x(t ) exp(−bt ) sinh β t
2β
The amplitude decreases exponentially, but over a longer (possibly much longer) time and
does not oscillate through zero at all.
 2. Critically Damped case

Condition is b 2 = 4ω02

Then the displacement of the damped oscillator is given by=

x(t ) a exp(−bt )

This does not represent any oscillatory motion. If the system experiences jerk, i.e., v=vo at
t=0, we get

( p + qt ) exp(−bt )
x(t ) =

From the above equation it can be noted that instantaneous displacement does not take
negative value at any value and attains maximum value t=b-1. Physically it means that a
critically damped system stops just before reaching the equilibrium position.

3. Under Damped case.

Condition is b 2 < 4ω02

ωd
Let= (ω 2
0 − b2 )

is then x(t ) a0 e − bt cos (ωd t − φ )

The solution for 'x'=

 a −a 
= a1a2 and tan φ i  1 2 
Where a0 2=
 a1 + a2 
The amplitude of the oscillator decreases exponentially with time at a rate governed by
the magnitude of damping. The motion of under damped system is oscillatory but not
simple harmonic.

Energy of the Under Damped Oscillator

(i) Kinetic energy (K)

1 2 1 2 −2bt 2 2
=K = mu ma e ωd sin (ωd t − φ )
2 2
(ii) Potential energy (U)
1 2 1 2 −2bt
=U = kx ka e cos 2 (ωd t − φ )
2 2
(iii) Total energy (E)
1 2 −2bt
E= ka e
2
Logarithmic decrement

The logarithmic decrement is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
maximum displacements in a damped oscillation.
The logarithmic decrement represents the rate at which the amplitude of a free damped
vibration decreases.
bT γ T
Logarithmic decrement is given by= λ =
2 4m
1 a 
or λ = ln  1 
( n − 1)  an 
Where a1 and an are the amplitudes in the 1st half period and nth half period.

Forced Oscillations

Forced oscillations occur when an oscillating system is driven by a periodic force that is
external to the oscillating system.

An oscillating system loses energy due to damping, and the amplitude of its oscillations
decreases gradually with time. To maintain oscillations of an oscillator, the energy lost due
to damping need to be compensated by feeding energy from outside using an external
source. In general, the frequencies of the oscillating driven system to which energy is
supplied and the external driving force may not be the same. However, irrespective of its
natural frequency, the driven system ultimately begins to oscillate with the frequency of
the driver. Such oscillation is called forced oscillations.
 Forced oscillations of a 1-D weakly damped oscillator

Let us consider that the spring-mass system is subjected to an external driving force,
F(t)=Focosωt, where Fo is the amplitude of the driving force.

Suppose that the mass m is displaced from its equilibrium position through a distance x and
then released. Then, it is subjected to a (i) driving force Focosωt, (ii) restoring force -kx,
dx
and (iii) damping force −γ . So, for a damped forced oscillator, the equation of motion
dt
is given by
d 2x dx
m 2 = −kx − γ − Fo cos ωt
dt dt
Or
d 2x dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = f o cos ωt
dt dt
Where 2b=γ/m, ω02 = k / m and fo=Fo/m.
The above second-order differential equation can be applied to any damped oscillator, whether
it is mechanical or electrical, and whose natural frequency is different from the frequency of
an external harmonic force applied to the system.

For ω ≠ ωo, the general solution of the above equation is given by, x(t)=x1(t) + x2(t)

where x1(t) is a solution of its homogenous part. It corresponds to the solution of weakly
damped oscillator and can be written as
=x1 (t ) a0 e − bt cos (ωd t − φ )
Since x1(t) decays exponentially, after some time, it will cease to exist. This transient motion
ωd
corresponds to frequency ωd where= (ω 2
0 − b 2 ) , which different from natural frequency
of the oscillator as well as the frequency of driving force.
Steady state behaviour of a 1-D weakly damped forced oscillator

d 2x dx
To obtain the steady state solution of 2 + 2b + ω02 x =
f o cos ωt , we consider homogenous
dt dt
part of x(t)=x1(t) + x2(t), i.e.,
d 2 x2 dx
2
+ 2b 2 + ω02 x2 = f o cos ωt
dt dt
=
Let us assume x2 a cos (ωt − θ )
dx2 d 2 x2
Then = −aω sin (ωt − θ ) and =−aω 2 cos (ωt − θ )
dt dt 2
So, the differential equation becomes
(ωo2 − ω 2 ) a cos (ωt − θ ) − 2abω sin (ωt − θ ) =f o cos ωt
Expanding and rearranging the cosωt and sinωt terms and equation to zero, we get
(ωo2 − ω 2 ) a cos θ + 2abω sin θ =
f o cos ωt

(ω 2
o − ω 2 ) a sin θ − 2abω cos θ =
0
The phase by which the driving force, Focosωt leads the displacement of steady state solution
x2(t) is given by
2bω
θ = tan −1 2
ωo − ω 2
fo
Using this the expression for amplitude is given by a (ω ) =
(ω 2 − ω 2 )2 + 4b 2ω 2 
1/2

 o 
Fo
Or a (ω ) =
m (ωo2 − ω 2 ) + 4b 2ω 2 
2 1/2

 
Fo
=
The steady state solution can now be written as x2 ( t ) cos (ωt − θ )
m (ωo − ω ) + 4b ω 
1/2
 2 2 2 2 2
 

x ( t ) x1 ( t ) + x2 ( t )
The complete solution for the steady state forced oscillator is given by =
Fo
x ( t ) a0 e − bt cos (ωd t − φ ) + cos (ωt − θ ) .
m (ωo2 − ω 2 ) + 4b 2ω 2 
2 1/2

 

Resonance

Resonance is when the natural frequency of a system is equal to the frequency of an external
force. This results in oscillating and an increase in amplitude.

As the driving frequency approaches the natural frequency of the system, the amplitude of
oscillations begins to increase gradually and attains a very high value when ω is very close to
ωo. The condition in which amplitude acquires maximum value is known as resonance. The
corresponding value of frequency is called resonance frequency (ωr).
 fo
Consider the amplitude a (ω ) = ,
(ω 2 − ω 2 )2 + 4b 2ω 2 
1/2

 o 
 
da (ω ) d  fo 
Its derivative is given by =  
dω dω   2
( )
1/2
2 2 2 2 
ω − ω + 4 b ω
  o  
da (ω )
For ω=ωr, = 0 , this provides resonance frequency
dω
(ω − 2b 2 )
1/2
ωr
= 2
o

And maximum amplitude at resonance is given by

fo
amax =
2b (ω 2
o − b2 )
 Power absorbed by a weakly damped forced oscillator:
Power absorbed is given by
Work Force * displacement
= =
Power = Force * velocity
time time
P (t ) = F (t )*v (t )
=P(t ) Fo vo cos ωt cos (ωt + φ )
Foω
Where vo =
m (ωo2 − ω 2 ) + 4b 2 m 2 
2 1/2

 
Average power absorbed by the forced oscillator is given by,
 bF 2  ω2
< P >=  o 
 m  (ω 2 − ω 2 )2 + 4b 2 m 2 
1/2

 o 
At resonance when ω=ωo, the average power absorbed by the forced oscillator is given by,

Fo2
< P >=
4bm
That is, maximum power is absorbed at resonance and its magnitude is controlled by damping
in the system and the amplitude of driving force.
Quality factor:

Quality factor or Q factor is a dimensionless parameter that describes how underdamped an

oscillator or resonator is. It is defined as the ratio of the peak energy stored in the resonator in
a cycle of oscillation to the energy lost per radian of the cycle.
Q factor is alternatively defined as the ratio of a resonator's centre frequency to its bandwidth
when subject to an oscillating driving force. These two definitions give numerically similar,
but not identical, results. Higher Q indicates a lower rate of energy loss and the oscillations die
out more slowly. Resonators with high quality factors have low damping, so that they ring or
vibrate longer.
This quantity is defined to be 2π times the energy stored in the oscillator, divided by the energy
lost in a single oscillation period.

Energy stored
Q = 2π .
Energy dissipated per cycle
In terms of resonance frequency, quality factor is given by,
ωo ω ω
=
Q = = o o

ω2 − ω1 ∆ω BW

ωo = 2πfr is the angular resonant frequency, and Δω is the angular half-power bandwidth or full
width at half maximum (FWHM) i.e. the bandwidth over which the power of vibration is
greater than half the power at the resonant frequency.

ωo ωoτ
Quality factor can also be represented in terms of relaxation time as =
Q = .
2b 2

Relaxation time (τ): the time required for an exponentially decreasing variable (as the
amplitude of a damped oscillation) to drop from an initial value to 1/e or 0.368 of that value.

A resonant LCR circuit:

Figure below shows a circuit containing a capacitor, resistor and inductor connected in series
through an alternating voltage source.
 Same amount of current will flow in all the three circuit components and vector sum of potential
drop across each component would be equal to the applied voltage

If 'I' be the amount of current in the circuit at any time and VL, VC and VR the potential drop
across L, C and R respectively then
VR=IR ⇒ Voltage is in phase with I
VL=iωL ⇒ Voltage is leading I by 900
VC=i/ωC ⇒ Voltage is lagging behind I by 900

Since VL is ahead of I by 90 and VC is behind by 90 so that phase difference between VL and

VC is 180 and they are in direct opposition to each other.

q (t ) dI
Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to this circuit we get, + RI + L = Eo cos ωt
C dt
d 2q dq q (t )
Since I =dq/dt, the above equation can be re written as L 2 + R + = Eo cos ωt
dt dt C
d 2 q R dq q (t ) Eo
Dividing with L on both sides we get, 2 + + = cos ωt
dt L dt LC L
R 2 1 Eo
=
Considering, 2b = , ωo =
and fo
L LC L
2
d q dq
we have 2
+ 2b + ωo2 q (t ) =f o cos ωt ,
dt dt
Which is similar to damped driven oscillator, so the steady state solution for q(t) is given by

Eo
=q (t ) 1/2
cos (ωt − θ )
 1 2
2
2
L  − ω  + (ω R / L ) 
 LC  

1 R2
=
The angular frequency of charge oscillations in LCR circuit is given by ω − 2
LC 4 L
Eo Eo
=
Then q (t ) cos (ω
= t −θ ) cos (ωt − θ )
 
2 1/2
1   ωZ
ω  R2 +  ω L − 
  ωC  
1/2
 2  1  
2

Z =R + ωL − 
ωC  
is the impedance of LCR circuit.
 
ωo L
The quality factor of an LCR circuit is given by Q = and resonance frequency is
R
1
ωo = .
LC
 Summary of Electrical-Mechanical Analogies

Mechanical variable electrical variable

Force Voltage
Velocity Current
Momentum Flux linkage
Displacement Charge
Damping Resistance
Mass Inductance
Compliance Capacitance
Mechanical impedance Electrical impedance

Reference: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_10