E X P ERIMENT B3

AIM

To find the focal length of aconvex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
1 1
between and -.boiboses it t
U V
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
An optical bench, three uprights with clamps, two sharp-edged needles, convex lens
of focal
length less than 20 cm, index needle/knitting needle and a half-metre scale.
THEORY/WORKING FORMULA
1. If an object needle is placed between f and 2 f of a convex lens, its real, inverted and
magnified image is formed beyond2f on the other side of the lens. By placing another
needle, called image needle there, we can locate the image of the first needle by removing
the parallax between the image and the second needle itself.
The relation between the object distance y, image distarnce vand focal lengthfof a
lens is given by the thin lens formula,
1 1 1 or
f=
Image
According to new Cartesian sign convention, L of O
uis negative andvis positive when a convex
lens forms a real image. Also, f is positive
for a convex lens.
F
RAY DIAGRAM 2F F 2F'

See Fig. 9.11 Object

needle O
Image
needle/

ig. 9.11 Ray diagram for finding the focal length of a convex lens.
130
 Chapter 9:SPHERICAL LENSES

PROCEDURE

To find rough focal length of the convex lens

1. Hold the convex lens in the right hand. Obtain a sharp image of the sun or a distant object
on a wall (or at the back of your practical notebook).
2. Measure the distance between the lens and the sharp image with a half-metre scale. This
distance gives arough value for the focal length of the convex lens.
NOTE Donot see the image of the sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.
To locate the image formed by convex lens
3. Place the optical bench horizontally on the working table.
4. Mount the convex lens Lin the clamp of central upright and the two needles Oand I in the
remaining uprights. Make the plane of the lens Lvertical so that its principal axis becomes
parallel to the length of the optical bench. Adjust the tips of the two needles and the optical
centre of the lens to the same height,Fix a smallpiece of white paper on the tip of the object
needle 0.
5. Mark pointsFand 2Fwith a chalk piece on the both sides of the lens, at distances equal to
rough focal length and twice the rough focal length from the lens Lrespectively.
6. Place the object needle Obetween F and 2F but closer to 2F on one side of the lens L. It will
form areal, inverted and magnified image on the other side of the lens. Adjust the height of
the needle I till its tip coincides with the tip of the image needle O. Moving the needle I
forward or backward, remove the parallax between the image of needle Oand the needle I
itself. Note the positions of the three uprights on the scale of the optical bench.
7. Now move the object needle 2 cm closer to the lens Land locate the new position of the
image. Moving the object needle closer to the lens Leach time, take three or four such sets of
readings. Check that the object needle always remains between F and 2 F.
Note that the image moves away from the lens as the object needle moves closer to the lens and vice versa.
8. Record all these observations in a tabular form. Find u and v in each case.
9. Write the observations at serial numbers 4-6 by just interchanging the values of u and v in
observations at serial numbers 1-3. This makes use of the property of conjugate foci
To determine the index correction
10. Measure the length of the index/knitting needle with a half-metre scale. Let it be x Cm.
11. Hold the knitting needle between the centre of the convex lens and the tip of the object
needle O. Read the distance between the two uprights on the scale on the optical bench. Let it
be y cm. Determine the index correction (x-y) for the object distance u.
12. Now hold the knitting needle between the cerntre of the lens and tip of the image needle 1.
Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be z cm. Determine the index correction
(x-z) for the image distance v.
13. After adding the respective index corrections, record the corrected values of u and v. Also
1 1
find the values of and in each case.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Rough focal length of the convex lerns = cm

Actual length of the needle, x= Cm

131
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

the
between object needle and convex lens, y =
knitting needle needle andthe convex lens Cm
Observed length of the image z=
knitting needle between C
Observed length of the Cm
distance u=e, =X-y=.
Index correction for obiect Cm
correction for image distance v=e, =X-Z=
Index convex lens
Determination of u, v and f tor the
Table 9.1:
Corrected distances
Positions of uprights
Observed 1
Focal
distances
u=u'+ e, V=v+e, (cm-')
length
S.No. Object Concave needle
needle 0 lens L
Image
I
(cm)
LI='
(cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm-') f="U-y
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6
7

Mean value of f = Cm

NOTE Use the standard table of reciprocals for writing the values of uand .

Determination of fby Graphical Methods

1. Focal length from graph between u and u. Choosing a suitable and same scale for both the
axes, plot the vgraph by taking the Evalues along negative X-axis and -values along positre
Y-axis because u is negative and v is positive in this experiment according to the Cartesian sign
convention. Asthe values of uand v are greater than the focal length, the origin Oshould be given
a value close to the rough focal length on both the axes which
enables us to choose a larger scae
for the graph. The graph will be a rectangular hyperbola, as
shown in Fig. 9.12.
Draw a line from the origin O making
an angle of 45° with the X-axis. It meets 40graph for a convex lens
the v graph at point P. Obviously, for
any point on this line
Scale:
V=
X-axis: 1division = Cm

1 1 1 1 1 2 Y-axis:1 division = Cm
+
f 7

OB (cm) v
() f== cm
Hyperbola
2 2

OA -f 2) P t

(i) f=-; 2
Cm

2f
Mean value of f=, --
Cm
45°
u(cm) Af0

Fig. 9.12 Graph between uand vfor a Convexlens.

132
 Chapter9: SPHERICAL LENSES
2. Focal length frOm I÷v lines. Choosing larger and
same scale for both axes, mark the values Or
along negative X-axiS and those of v along positive Y-axis. Draw straight lines
ko, Hg joiningthe ponts 4
etc;of the X-axis and the correspondingpoints v,,V,,U,, etc; of the Y-axis. [See Fig. 9.15]
Within the limits of the experimental error, these lines meet at a common point
Qwhich should
have coordinates (-f,f) So
f= -*-COordinate of point Q+y-coordinate of point Q OA+ OB
Cm
2 2

u-v straight lines for a konvex lens 11 8raph for aconvex lens

Scale : Scale :
X-axis : 1 div. = cm -1

Y-axis : 1div. = X-axis : 1div. Cm

Cm
Y-axis: 1div. = Cm
p{cm)

u (cm)
1 1
Fig. 9.13 Focal length from the intersection of u-v lines. Fig. 9.14 Graph between and for a convex lens.

for boththe
3. Focal length from the graph between and.Choosing a suitable and same scale
1
1
along negative X-axis and along positive Y-axis. Draw the best
axes, plot points taking
intersect both the axes. Each
possible straight line through these points and produce it 1to
9.14]
intercept, OA on X-axis and OBon Y-axis, gives a value for. [See Fig.
1 cm
() Intercept on X-axis = OA
f
1 1
(i) Intercept on Y-axis =f =OB ’ f OB
Cm

Mean value of f =. Cm

RESULT
calculated from u and v values as f=
Cm.

1. Focal length of the convex lens

lens from the -v graph
Cm
Z. Focal length of the convex
vlines =
lens from the intersection of
Cm

J. Focal length of the convex 1 1_

lens from the graph between and cm

Focal length of the convex

133
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

PRECAUTIONS
The principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the ontical L..
2. The uprights should be rigid and vertical.
3. The tips of the object and image needles and the optical centre of the convex
lens must be
adjusted at the sameme height.
4. To locate the position of the image, the eye must be held at a distance of about 30 cm bak:.
the image needle.
5. Parallax must be removed tip to tip.
6. Index corrections for u and v must be carefully determined and correctly applied.
7. The object needle should not be placed between the focus and the optical centre of the lens
because it produces only a virtual image.
8. The object needle should be distinguished from the image needle by fixing a small piece of
white paper over it.
9. Theobject and image needles should not be interchanged during the course of the experiment
10. The values of u and v should not differ much. This minimises the error in the
determinaion
of f.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax might not have been
removed completely.
3. Errors may occur in the result if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal andifthetips
of the two optical needles and the optical centre of the convex llens are not at the same
horizontal level.
 E XPERIM EN T B4
AIM
convex lens.
To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
one thick), a thin concave
Anoptical bench with four uprights, two optical needles (one thin and index/knitting
lens, a convex lerns of focal length ( 15 cm) smaller than that of the concave lens,
needle and ahalf-metre scale.

THEORY/WORKING FORMULA
determined
A concave lens always forms a virtual and erect image. So its focal length cannot be
accurately. The difficulty is overcome by interposing a convex lens between the object and the
concave lens and producing a real image. For this the focal length of the convex lens nust be smaller
than the focal length of the concave lens.
Let I, be the real image of the object Oformed by a convex lens L. If a concave lens L, is
interposed between the lens L and image I,the rays after refraction through lens I are

134
 Chapter 9: SPHERICAL LENSES

diverged by the concave lens L, so that the real image is shifted away from the convex lens to
position l,.The image I, serves asa virtual object for the concave lens which forms real image 1,
of it.

In this case : Object distance =u= Ll, i Image distance =v=L,I,

Focal length fof the concave lens can be determined from the thin lens formula,
1 1 1
=
f=
f
Here for the concave lens, u and v are positive and u <f, so f is negative.
RAY DIAGRAMS
Image of
object needle O

(a)

Object
needle O
Image
needle I
L,
Image of
object needle O I

(b)

Image
needle I
Object
needle O
Fia, 9.15 Focal length of concave lens by using a convex lens.

PROCEDURE
To find the rough focal length of the convex lens
1. Select aconvex lens L, of such a focal length that it forms a converging combination with the
concave lens L,. For thisthe focal length of convex length must be less than that of concave lens.
2. Hold the convex lens in the right hand. Obtain a sharp image of the sun or a distant object
on a wall (or at the back surface of your practical notebook).
3. Measure the distance between the lens and the sharp image with a half-metre scale. This
distance gives a rough value for the focal length of the convex lens.
NOTE Do not see the image of the sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.

To locate the image formed by convex lens

4. Hold the convex lens L in a clamp and mount it in an upright so that its principal axis is
horizontal and parallel to the length of the optical bench. Mount thin needle as object needle
Oand thick needle as object needle I in the two uprights on either side of the convex lens L.
Adjust the tips of the two needles to the same height as the optical centre of the convex lens.
135
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

convex lens greater than its

5. Locate
Adjust its
the real
object needle
inverted image a distance
Oat l, from the
on the other focal length.
side of the lens by removing parallax betweos
needle
Note the positions of object o,
the image I, and the second needle I. lens
Land
image needle I on the scale of the optical bench.
and concave lenses
106. locate the image formed by the combination of convex
Mount the concave lens L, in its upright and interpose it between the convex lens L and
image needle I. First keep the concave lens fairly close to needle I. It will be found that the
real inverted image has shifted away from the convex lens. Bring the concave lens closer to

the convex lens until this shift is fairly large.

7. Now shift the needle Ito locate the
image I, by it, by removing tip to tip parallax
the thatof the
secondSeepart
the two.
positions of the object needle Oand the convex lens
disturbedbetduriweenng
L, are not
the experiment. Note the positions of concave lens L and the image l,
8. Repeat the experiment three or four times by changing the position of Concave lens L
convex lens L, or bot
relative to convex lens L or that of object needle Orelative to
the image I, formed by the combination of convex and concave lenses is blurred OT not
distinctly visible, try to locate it by bringing concave lens closer to the position of image I,
In any case, the object needle O must lie between F and 2 F of the convex lens. Record all
these observations in a tabular form.
To determine the index correction
9. Measure the length of the indexknitting needle with a half-metre scale. Let it be xcm.
10. Hold the knitting needle between the centre of the concave lens L, and the tip of the imape
needle I. Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be y cm. The index correction for
both the object distance u and image distance v will be, e=x-y.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Rough focal length of the convex lens L=. Cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x= Cm

Observed length of the knitting needle between concave lens L, and image needle I, y= Cm

Index correction for both u and V, e=x-y= Cm

Table 9.2: Determination of u, v and f for COnvex lens

Positions of uprights Observed Corrected distances Focal length
S.No. 0bject ConvexConcave First Second
distances
needle lens L, lens L, image I, Ll, =u'LI, =
f=u-V
0(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
image I, (cm) (cm)
U=u'+e V=+e
1
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
2
3
4.
5.
6

cm
Mean value of f.
RESULT
Focal length of the given concave lens Cm

136
 Chapter9: SPHERICAL LENSES
PRECAUTION^
1. The focallength of the
that they together formauxiliarv convex lens should be smaller than that of
a Converging concave lens so
2. The optical axis of the combination.
system must be parallel to the length of the
3. As the image l, is quite optical bench.
enlarged and
needle I and a thicker image needle I. blurred, it is preferable to use thin and sharp object
4. The tips of the object and image
needles and optical centres of the two lenses must be
adjusted at the same height.
5. The object needle should be
placed at a distance from the convex lens greater than its focal
length so that a real image is formed.
6. The concave lens must be placed
near the convex lerns because the second image I, is formed
only when the distance between concave lens L
and first image I, (which acts as virtual
object for L) is less than the focal length of the
concave lens.
7. The convex lens and the obiject needle
must not be disturbed during the second part of the
experiment.
8. Sometimes a diminished, real and inverted image of the image needle I is also
formed due to
reflection of light rays from the concave surface of the lens L.It should not be
the bold and bright image formed by the lens confused with
combination.
9. For getting accurate results, the concave lens L, should be so
adjusted that the second image
I, is sufficiently remote from the first image I,.
10. Parallax must be remnoved tip to tip.
11. Index correction should be accurately determined and correctly
applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The principal axis of the convex lens may not be parallel to the length of the optical bench.
2. The uprights may not be vertical.
3. Parallax might not have been removed completely .
4. In the second part of the experiment, the positions of the uprights holding the object needle
and the convex lens might have been disturbed.
 E X P ERIMEN T B5
AIM

To determine the angle of deviation of the glass prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation [and hence tofind the refractive index of
the material of the prism].
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
Drawing board, triangular glass prism, alpins, drawing pins/cellotape, protractor, aruler, white
paper sheets and a graph paper.
THEORY/WORKING FORMULAE
1. Whern a ray of light passes through a prism,
Angle of prism + Angle of deviation= Angle of incidence + Angle of emergence
A+8=i+e 8=i+e-A

142
 Chapter 10 REFRACTION THROUGH AGLASS PRISM
As i increases, ò first
decreases, becomes minimnum and then increases. In the position of
minimum deviation ,,the ray of light passes symmetrically, i.e.,
i=e and r=r'. parallel to the base so that
2. The relation between H and 8.. is
sin A+8,m
=

sin ;2
DIAGRAMS

Normal Normal
at R
at Q
M8 j=m

B C i=e
(a) (b)

Fig. 10.4 (a) Refraction of light through a prism (b) Variation of Awith Sfor a glass prism.
PROCEDURE

1. Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board with drawing pins/cellotape.

2. Using a sharp pencil, draw a long straight line XY in the middle and parallel to the length of
the paper.
3. Mark seven points O,, O,, ....., O, at equal distances of 6 cm on the line XY.
4. Draw normals N,0,, N,O, . ,N,0, on the line XY.
5. Using aprotractor, draw straight lines PO,, P,O,,., P,0, corresponding to the incident
respectively with the
rays making angles of incidence at 30°, 35°, 40°, 50°, 55° and 60°
normals.
along the ruler so that its refracting face
6. By keeping a ruler along a line XY, place the prism AB as shown in Fig. 10.5. Draw the
AB lies on the line XY with point O, in the middle of
boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
N, N3 N

P
P
P P P io
A
X IM

P4
different angles of incidence.
Fig. 10.5 Angle of deviations for
143
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

incident rav
7. Fix two alpins P and P, vertically, more than 6 cm apart, on the
that pin P is close to point O,
line PO such
8. Close the left eye. Looking into the prism from
the opposite refracting face AC, position the right
eye in line with images of the feet of pins P and
P. Now fix pins P, and P, in line with P and P
as viewed through the prism. Eye should be kept
at some distance from the pins so that all the pins
can be seen in clear focus simultaneously, as
shown in Fig. 10.6. Distances P P and ,la
the
should not be less than 6 cm so as to locate
P
Pa
B
A

Ps
Pa

Fig. 10.6 How to trace the path of

a ray through a prism.
, Eye

directions of the incident ray and the emergent

ray with an accuracy of the order of 1°.
9. Remove the alpins and encircle their pin pricks with a sharp pencil. Draw the line joining
and P,. Produce lines P, P, (forward) and P,P, (backward) so that they meet point MDraw
arrowheads on P,P, and PP, to indicate the directions of incident and emergent rays
respectively.
10. Using a protractor, measure the angle of incidence i=ZP,O, N, and also the angle of
deviation Õ= ZPMS.
11. By placing the prism at locations O,. O3 O,, O_, O, and O,, repeat the experiments
for angles of incidence 35°, 40°, 45°, 50° 55° and 60°, respectively. Measure the
corresponding angle of deviation in each case and indicate the values of these angles in the
diagram.
12. Measure the angle of prism A between the refracting faces AB and AC.
13. Record all observations in a tabular form.

OBSERVATIONS
Angle of prism, A =60°
Table 10.1 : Different values of i and 8 for a prism
S.No. Angle of incidence, i Angle of deviation, 8
1 30°
2 35°
3 40°
4 45°
5 50°
6. 55°

7. 60°

NOTE In order to get an accurate value of the angle of mininum deviation, more readins
should be taken in the lower region of the i-8 curve. For example, for the i-8 curve shown in
Fig. 10.7, we need to take more readings for values of i in the range 40°- 50° say,: at intervals of
2° and 3º,
 Chapter 10 :
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM
GRAPH AND CALCULATIONS
Choosing suitable scales, plot graph a
i v$. 8 graph for a prism
between iand à Take angle of incidence i 48
along X-axis and angle of deviation §
along Y-axis. Draw free hand smooth 46

curve passing through the maximum &

deviation
number of plotted points. 44

Draw a tangent on the lowest point of the

curve parallel to the X-axis. Read the angle of 42
Angle
of minimum deviation 8,, on the Y-axis of
the graph. 40

Angle of minimum deviation,

38
Om
Scale :
Refractive index, 36
X-axis:1 div. = 1°
Y-axis:1 div. =0.2°
sin A+m
2 20 30 40 50 60 70

A Angle of incidence i(degrees)’

sin
2
Fig. 10.7 Variation of angle of deviation with angle
RESULT of incidence for a prism.
1. As the angle of incidence increases,
the angle of deviation first decreases, reaches a minimum value and then again increases, as
is obvious from the i versus 6graph.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, S. =
3. Refractive index of the prism material, u =
PRECAUTIONS
1. An ink mark should be put on the prism to distinguish the refracting angle Afrom the other
angles and the same angle of the prism should be used throughout.
2. The angle of incidence should not be less than 30, as the ray may get totally reflected inside the
prism.
3. For prism of side 2.5 or 3 cm, the distance between any two pins should not be less than 6 cm.
4. Alpins should be fixed vertically and the pin pricksshould be encircled immediately after
they are removed.
the same
5. While fixing alpins, the feet of pins (and not their heads) must be adjusted in
straight line.
6. In order to locate the incident and emergent rays accurately, the pin separations P, P, and
P,P, should be more than 6 cm.
emergent rays by arrowheads.
7. Indicate the path of the incident, the refracted and the
through the plotted points.
Þ. A smooth best fitting curve should be drawn
SoURCEs OF ERROR
. Alpins may not be vertical.
straight line.
2. The feet of the alpins may not bein a
be small.
lhe distances between the pins may during agiven set of observations.
prism might have disturbed
* Position of the
not be accurate.
Measurement of angles may
145
 Chapter 12 :SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Curveofap-njjunction when it is reverse biased. Here a
microammeter is used to Importont Features of The Graph
measure the small currents
throughthe reverse biased diode. An l-V graph of the () When the diode is reverse biased, a very small
typeshown in Fig. 12.10is obtained. It is called reverSe current, about a few microamperes flows, which
baracteristic of the junction diode almost remains constant with bias. This small
current is called reverse saturation current. It is
Breakdown voltage
V
(Reverse bias)
due to the drift of minority charge carriers across
3 -2 1
the junction.
)

Microampere
(uA)
(ii) When the reverse voltage across the p-n junction
0.5 reaches a sufficiently high value, the reverse
Reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This
conduction 1.0
voltage at which breakdown of the junction
-1.5 diode occurs is called breakdown voltage or
Breakdown
region peak-inverse voltage of the diode.

Ba. 12.10 Reverse characteristic of ajunctiondiode.

EX PERIMENT B9
AIM
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for ap-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A pn junction diode (OA-79 or IN4007), a resistor (10-12 V) of

value 3nw a variable

(0-12 V), microammeter

voltage pOwer supply, voltmeter (0-3 V), milliammeter (0-200 mA), voltmeter
(0-200 uA) a plug key, connecting wires and a sand paper.
THEORY
flowing through a pnjunction with the voltage applied
Agraph showing the variation of currentcharacteristic of a pn junction.
across it is called current-voltage or FV
battery is connected to side and the
Forward biased characteristic. If the positive terminal of a
is said to be forward biased. With the
negative terminal to the -side, then the pn junction
increases very slowly almost negligibly, till the
increase in bias voltage, initially the current
called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage.
voltage across the diode crosses a certain value, bias
this voltage, the diode current increases rapidly, even tor a small increase in the
After
voltage. terminal of a battery is connected to the rside
and
Reverse biased characteristic. If the positive biased. When the
negative terminal to the pside, then the n junction is said to be reverse constant This
the becomes
the current increases but soon
reverse bias voltage increases, initially
called reverse saturation current.
current is very small(a few uA). It is

169
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
V
R

R p n

mA Rh

Rh

E
K (At 12 V)
E
(At 3 V)
Fig. 12.11 Circuit for I-V characteristic Fig. 12.12 Circuit for I-V characteristic
of forward biased diode. of reverse biased diode.

PROCEDURE
For forward biased characteristic
1. Draw the circuit diameter for forward bias pn junction as shown in Fig. 12.11 and artaes
the various components accordingly on the working table.
2. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
3. With the help of a sand paper, remove the insulations from the ends of the connecting wires
and leads of junction diode.
4. Connect the variable voltage power supply, pn junction diode, milliammeter, a protectie
resistor and a plug key all in series and a voltmeter in parallel with the junction diode zs
shown in Fig. 12.11. See that the positive terminals of voltmeter and ammeter, and the piyFe
lead are connected towards the positive terminal of the battery.
5. Give a small voltage (3 V) to the circuit by slight and gentle turning of the power suppy
knob. Move the sliding contact near the negative end and close the key. Both the voltmetr
and milliammeter will read zero.
6. Move the sliding contact slightly towards the positive end to apply a forward bias of U
Milliammeter will indicate zero current.
7. Increase forward bias first to 0.2 Vand then to 0.3 Vand note corresponding milliammeter
readings. Current remains zero (due to potential barrier of 0.3 V of pn junction).
8. Increase the forward bias to 0.4 V.
The
Now increase the forward bias in steps milliammeter shows
9. of 0.2 V and note
a small current.Cçrrent ineach
the corresponding

case. The value of forward current firstincreases slowly. Once the applied voltage exceeds
the threshold voltage/cut-in voltage (V,
0.7 V), the current increases rapidly.
10. As the threshold voltage is reached, increase the forward bias in steps of 0.1 Vnotingthe
corresponding current I, in each case. Continue increasing the forward bias tillthe Current
reaches the maximum limit of the
For reverse biased characteristic
milliammeter.
11., Disconnect the circuit and make connections for the reverse bias characteristics asshown
in
Fig. 12.12. Connect the pside of the pnjunction to the negative terminal of the powersupp
and replace milliammeter by
12. Note least count and microammeter.
zero error of voltmeter and microammeter.
170
 Chapter 12: SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
13. Apply a reverse bias of 12 Vto the
circuit. Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to the
positive end and close theplug key. Both voltmeter and microammeter will show zero
14. By moving the sliding contact of the readings.
rheostat, start increasing the reverse bias voltage in
suitable steps of 2 V or 3 V. Note the corresponding voltmeter and
A very small reverse current flows through the microammeter readings.
circuit and this current increases very slowly.
Stop increasing the reverse bias when the reverse current
suddenly begins to increase
rapidly. This part of the experiment gives aflat portion of the reverse bias
characteristic.
OBSERVATIONS
Pn junction diode used (diode no.) =
A. For forward biased characteristic
Range of the voltmeter =0 to V; Least count of the voltmeter = V
Range of the milliammeter =0 to mA; Least count of the milliammeter = MA
B. For reverse biased characteristic
Range of the voltmeter 0to V; Least count of the voltmeter =
Range of the microammeter = uA ; Least count of the microammeter = -uA

Table 12.1 : Variation of I with V

pnjunction forward biased pn junction reverse biased
S.No.
Forward voltage V Forward current I; Reverse voltage V, Reverse current I,
(volt) (mA) (volt) (LA)
1 0

2. 0.1 1

3. 0.2 2

4 0.3 3

5 0.4 4

6. 0.45 5

7 0.5
8. 7
0.55
9. 8
0.6
10. 0.65
10
11. 0.7
12. 11
0.75

PLOTTING GRAPHS
1. Forward biased characteristic. Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph between forward
voltage V, (along +ve X-axis) and forward current 1, (along tve Y-axis). We get a graph as
shown in Fig. 12.13. This graph is called forward characteristic of the given diode. Locate
of the given
the knee of the curve and read the cut-in voltage. From the graph, cut-in voltage
diode = V
reverse voltage
2. Reverse biased characteristic. Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph between
We get a graph as shown in
V (along -ve X-axis) and reverse current 1, (along -ve Y-axis).
reverse
Fig. 12.14. From the graph read the value of reVerse saturation current. From the graph,
saturation current for the given diode HA.

171
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI

Forward biased characteristic

80
Scale:
X-axis : 1cm = 0.2V
70 Y-axis :1cm = 10 mA
Reverse biased characteristic
+Reverse biased voltage V(volt)
(mA)
60 X -10 -8 -6 4
/ 0X
current
50
Breaktown
Forward
40 voltage
100
30

20
Scale:
X-axis :1cm =2V 200
10 Y-axis : 1 cm =50 uA
-259
0.2 0.4| 0.60.8 1.0 1.2
Forward biased voltage V(volt) ’ 300
ly
Fig. 12.13 I-V characteristic of a junction Fig. 12.14 I-V characteristic of junction
diode in forward biasing. diode in reverse biasing.
RESULT
1. The -Vcharacteristic curve for forward biasing of the given diode is shown in Fig. 12.13 and
for reverse biasing in Fig. 12.14.
2. From the forward characteristic curve,cut-in voltage for the given junction diode = V
3. From the reverse characteristic curve, saturation current for the given junction diode =
PRECAUTIONS
1. Voltmeter, milliammeter and microammeter of appropriate ranges should be usea
lur
forward and reverse biasings of the diode.
2. The pside of the junction diode should be connected to the +ve terminal of the power suppy
during forward biasing and to the ve terminal during reverse biasing.
3. The potential difference across the diode should be increased gradually in small steps ot U
or 0.2 V.
4. During forward biasing, the current through the diode should not exceed its permissible
5. During reverse biasing, the applied voltage should be less than the breakdown voltage o
the diode.
6. The current through the diode should be passed only when the observations are beng ta
SoURCES OF ERROR
1. The junction diode used in the experiment may be a damaged one.
Connectedwith
2. The njunction, voltmeter, milliammeter and ammeter may not have been
proper polarities to the power supply.
3. The passage of current through the diode for longer duration may heat upthe diode.

172