Course No: MKT-125

General Science and Environment

Chapter:
Atoms

Lecture given by
Dr. Md. Anwarul Azim Akhand
Professor
Dept. of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
University of Dhaka
 Atom: Definition

• Atoms are defined as “the basic building blocks of matter”.

• All matter—whether air, rock, or a living organism—is made up of small units called
atoms.
• An atom is the smallest component of a pure substance that exhibits physical and
chemical properties of that substance; an atom cannot be subdivided into smaller
substances without losing its properties.
• Atoms interact with each other in certain combinations to form molecules.
• Living cells are made up of molecules, some of which are very complex.
• The science of the interaction between atoms and molecules is called chemistry.
 Atom: Definition
• Atoms consist of three fundamental types of
particles, protons, electrons and neutrons.
• Neutrons and protons have approximately the
same mass and in contrast to this the mass of
an electron is negligible.
• A proton carries a positive charge, a neutron
has no charge and an electron is negatively
charged.
• An atom contains equal numbers of protons and
electrons and therefore overall an atom has no
charge.
• The nucleus of an atom contains protons and
neutrons only, and therefore is positively
charged.
• The electrons occupy the region of space
around the nucleus.
• Most of the atom is empty space and most of
the mass of atom is concentrated within the
nucleus.
 Atom
Size of an atom
• The size of an atom is extremely small, much smaller than our imagination.
• A layer of an atom as thick as a thin sheet of paper is formed when more than
millions of atoms are stacked together.
• It is impossible to measure the size of an isolated atom because it’s difficult to locate
the positions of electrons surrounding the nucleus.
• However, the size of an atom can be estimated by assuming that the distance
between adjacent atoms is equal to half the radius of an atom.
• Atomic radius is generally measured in nanometres.

Atomic mass
• It is the mass of an atom in a chemical element.
• It is roughly equivalent to the total neutrons and protons present in the atom.
• It is expressed in atomic mass units (amu, denoted by u) also known as Dalton (Da)
• amu expresses both atomic masses and molecular masses.
• amu is defined as one-twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12 (12C).
• Examples: The mass of one atom of helium-4 = 4.0026 AMU, The mass of one atom
of sulfur-32 = 31.972 AMU, The mass of one atom of hydrogen-1 = 1.007 AMU
Elements Atomic Mass (u)

Hydrogen 1

Carbon 12

Nitrogen 14

Oxygen 16

Sodium 23

Magnesium 24

Sulfur 32

Chlorine 35.5

Calcium 40
 Atom
Atomic number
• Neutral atoms of an element contain an equal number of protons and electrons.
• The number of protons in the nucleus determines an element’s atomic number (Z)
and distinguishes one element from another.
• For example, carbon’s atomic number (Z) is 6 because it has 6 protons while
uranium’s atomic number is 92.
• The number of neutrons can vary to produce isotopes, which are atoms of the same
element that have different numbers of neutrons.
• The number of electrons can also be different in atoms of the same element, thus
producing ions (charged atoms). For instance, iron, Fe, can exist in its neutral state,
or in the +2 and +3 ionic states.
• Since it is the electrons that determine how one atom interacts with another, in the
end it is the number of protons in the nucleus that determines the chemical
properties of an atom.

Carbon has an atomic number of six, and two stable

isotopes with mass numbers of twelve and thirteen,
respectively. Its relative atomic mass is 12.011.
 How ideas of atoms developed
Atomic models
• The concept of the atom that Western scientists accepted in broad outline from the
1600s until about 1900 originated with Greek philosophers in the 5th century BCE.
• Their speculation about a hard, indivisible fundamental particle of nature was
replaced slowly by a scientific theory supported by experiment and mathematical
deduction.
• Ancient Greek thinkers believed that all matter was made of a combination of earth,
air, fire and water.
• These substances were called 'elements' but they were not the same modern
elements.
• Later Greek thinkers suggested that matter could be made up of invisible particles.
• They called these particles atoms but they had no experimental evidence for their
model.
• It was more than 2,000 years before modern physicists realized that the atom is
indeed divisible and that it is not hard, solid, or immutable.
 How ideas of Atoms Developed
First Atomic Model: Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• The English chemist John Dalton carried out a series of experiments. He concluded
that all matter was made of tiny particles called atoms. He suggested that an atom
was a tiny solid ball. He published his ideas in 1803.
Postulates proposed by Dalton are as follows:
1. Matter is made up of very tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
2. The atoms of each element all have the same mass, but the mass of the atoms of
one element is different from the mass of the atoms of every other element.
3. Atoms combine to form molecules. When they do so, they combine in small, whole-
number ratios.
4. Atoms of some pairs of elements can combine with each other in different small,
whole-number ratios to form different compounds.
5. If atoms of two elements can combine to form more than one compound,
the most stable compound has the atoms in a 1 : 1 ratio. (This postulate was
quickly shown to be incorrect.)
Limitations Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• The theory was unable to explain the existence of isotopes.
• Nothing about the structure of the atom was appropriately explained.
• Later, scientists discovered particles inside the atom that proved the atoms are
divisible
 How ideas of Atoms Developed

Thomson Atomic Model

• An atom resembles a sphere of positive charge with electrons (negatively charged
particles) present inside the sphere.
• The positive and negative charge is equal in magnitude and therefore an atom has no
charge as a whole and is electrically neutral.

Limitations Thomson’s Atomic Model

• It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of atom failed to
explain how a positive charge holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom.
Therefore, This theory also failed to account for the position of the nucleus in an
atom
• Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal
foils
• No experimental evidence in its support
 How ideas of Atoms Developed
Rutherford Atomic Model
• The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in an extremely
small volume. This region is the nucleus of an atom.
• The electrons that surround an atom’s nucleus are negatively charged particles. The
electrons rotate faster in a fixed circular path around the nucleus. Such a fixed
circular path is called the orbit.
• Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass
of positively charged particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of
attraction.
Limitations Thomson’s Atomic Model
• As per Rutherford’s model, electrons revolve around the positively charged nucleus
in a circular path, which is not anticipated to be stable. A charged particle in rapid
motion along a circular route, would lose energy continually and eventually collapse
into the nucleus. This causes an atom to be unstable, whereas we know that atoms
are extremely stable.
• Because it merely postulated the existence of protons in the nucleus, the
Rutherford Model could not resolve the problem of atomic mass.
• Rutherford’s Atomic Model doesn’t explain the arrangement of electrons in the
atom, which makes this model incomplete in this regard.
 How ideas of Atoms Developed
Bohr’s Atomic Model
• In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged
nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits or shells.
• Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are known as orbital
shells.
• The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…) known as the quantum
number. This range of quantum number starts from nucleus side with n=1 having the
lowest energy level. The orbits n=1, 2, 3, 4… are assigned as K, L, M, N…. shells and
when an electron attains the lowest energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.
• The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level by
gaining the required energy and an electron moves from a higher energy level to
lower energy level by losing energy.
 How ideas of Atoms Developed

Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model

• Bohr’s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic field
on the spectra of atoms).
• It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of
atoms).
• It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
• It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms
 How ideas of Atoms Developed
Schrödinger's Atomic Model (1926 AD)
• The current model of the atom is the “quantum mechanical model” or the “electron
cloud model”, which was developed in the 1920s and early 1930s by a number of
scientists, including Erwin Schrödinger and Warner Heisenberg.
• This model is based on quantum mechanics principles, which describe the behaviour
of matter and energy at the subatomic level.
• The model states that
• The energy of electrons in an atom is quantized, which means that it can only have
certain specific values.
• An electron’s exact position and velocity (or momentum) cannot be determined at
the same time. As a result, the electron’s path is only probable and not exact.
• The wave function ψ, also known as the orbital wave function, represents the atomic
orbital. Each orbital of the electron has a specific amount of energy.
• The probability of finding an electron at a point in an atom is proportional to the
square of the wave function i.e., [ψ]2. It is positive and is also known as a probability
density. The value of [ψ] 2 at various points within the atom can be used to predict
the region around the nucleus where the electron will most likely be found or
located.
 Arrangement of electrons
Atomic number
• Electrons are negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus.
• The electrons form a cloud of negative charge which revolve around the nucleus in
definite orbits called shells (denoted by n).
• Electrons in atoms can have only certain specific energies. The shells are also called
energy levels.
• The shell closest to the nucleus is called K shell, the first shell. The next shell is called
the L shell. The shells next to the L shell are M shell and N shell.
• Generally the higher the energy of a shell, the farther it is (on average) from the
nucleus. Shells do not have specific, fixed distances from the nucleus, but an electron
in a higher-energy shell will spend more time farther from the nucleus than does an
electron in a lower-energy shell.
• Shells are further divided into subsets of electrons called subshells. The first shell has
only one subshell, the second shell has two subshells, the third shell has three
subshells, and so on. The subshells of each shell are labeled, in order, with the
letters s, p, d, and f. Thus, the first shell has only a single s subshell (called 1s), the
second shell has 2s and 2p subshells, the third shell has 3s, 3p, and 3d and so forth.
• According to the Bohr-Bury scheme, the electrons are distributed in shells.
 Arrangement of electrons

• The arrangement of electrons in different shells and sub-shells is known as the

electronic configuration of a particular element.
• The electronic configuration diagram represents an element in its ground state or
stable state. There are a set of rules to remember while distributing off electrons in
different orbits.
• Rule 1: The maximum number of electrons present in a particular shell is calculated
by the formula 2n2, where “n” represents the shell number. For instance, the K shell
is the first shell and it can hold up to 2(1)2 = 2 electrons. Similarly, the L shell is the
second shell and it can hold up to 2(2)2 = 8 electrons. This formula helps to calculate
the maximum number of electrons that an orbit can accommodate.
• Rule 2: The maximum capacity to hold electrons in the outermost shell is 8.
• Rule 3: The electrons will fill the inner shells before the outer shells. First electrons
will fill the K-shell and then L shell and so on. Thus, the electronic configuration of
elements follows an ascending order.
 Arrangement of electrons

Shell Shell Subshell Names of Formula of Maximum number of

number number Subshell electron electrons in each
distribution shell
(2n2)
K 1 1 1s 2×12 2

L 2 2 2s, 2p 2×22 8

M 3 3 3s, 3p, 3d 2×32 18

N 4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f 2×42 32

Different subshells hold a different maximum number of electrons. Any s subshell can
hold up to 2 electrons; p, 6; d, 10; and f, 14.
A simple scheme to help remember the
order in which the orbitals are filled.
 Arrangement of electrons: Examples

1. Helium atom:
Helium consists of 2 electrons.
The 2 electrons are arranged in K shell.
The maximum number of electrons in the K shell
(1st orbit) = 2. Therefore, shells needed = 1.

2. Lithium atom:
Lithium has 3 electrons. The maximum number of
electrons accommodated in the K shell (1st orbit)
will be 2. The second orbit will accommodate the
rest of the electrons. Electronic configuration of
Lithium= 2, 1. Therefore, the total number of
shells required = 2.

3. Oxygen atom:
Oxygen has 8 electrons. The maximum number of
electrons accommodated in the K shell (1st orbit)
will be 2. The second orbit will accommodate the
rest of the electrons left (6 electrons). Electronic
configuration of Oxygen = 2, 6. Therefore, the
total number of shells required = 2 (1st and
2nd shell/orbit).
 Arrangement of electrons: Examples

4. Chlorine atom:
Chlorine has 17 electrons. The maximum
number of electrons accommodated in the K
shell (1st orbit) will be 2. The second orbit will fill
up to 8 electrons. Finally, The third orbit will
accommodate the rest of the electrons left.
Electronic configuration of Chlorine = 2, 8, 7.
Therefore, the total number of shells required =
3 (1st, 2nd, and 3rd shell).

5. Argon atom:
Argon has 18 electrons. The maximum number
of electrons accommodated in K shell is 2. The
second orbit will fill up to 8 electrons. The third
orbit can fill up to 18 electrons and it will
accommodate left electrons of the element.
Electronic configuration of Argon = 2, 8, 8.
Therefore, the total number of shells = 3.
 Isotope, Isotones, Isobars
Isotope
• Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons, but differing numbers
of neutrons. A number of protons in the atom is the atomic number of that atom. A
particular chemical element has a fixed number of protons. The total number of
protons and neutrons is known as the atomic mass. Isotopes have different atomic
masses.
• For example, the two isotopes of Uranium are, 23592 U and 23992 U. You will see here
that the number of protons is the same in both the isotopes, but they contain 143
(235-92) and 147 (239-92) neutrons, respectively.
• The presence of an extra neutron significantly changes the behaviour of that
particular atom.
• Almost all the chemical elements have isotopes. There are 275 known isotopes of 81
stable chemical elements. For a particular chemical element, there are stable
isotopes as well as radioactive isotopes (unstable).
• Radioactive isotopes spontaneously break down into two lighter daughter elements
with the emission of particles such as alpha, beta, and gamma rays.
 Isotope, Isotones, Isobars
Isobar
• Isobars are atoms of various chemical elements with the same atomic mass. The
total of protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus is known as atomic mass. A
nucleon is either a proton or a neutron. Isobars have the same number of nucleons.
• The series of elements with 40 Mass numbers serve as a good
example; 4016S, 4017Cl, 4018Ar, 4019K, and 4020Ca.
• The nucleus of all the above-mentioned elements contain the same number of
particles in the nucleus but contain varying numbers of protons, neutrons as well as
electrons.
• The chemical properties of isobars are widely different because they have different
number and arrangement of electrons.
 Isotope, Isotones, Isobars
Isotone
• Isotones are atoms that have the same neutron number but different proton
number.
• For example, 3616S, 3717Cl, 3818Ar, 3919K, and 40
20Ca are all isotones of 20 since they all
contain 20 neutrons.
 Difference Among Isotope, Isotones, Isobars

Criteria Isotope Isobar Isotone

Isotopes vs Isotopes are atoms with Isobars are atoms of different Isotones are atoms of
Isobars vs the same number chemical elements having different elements
Isotones of protons, but differing equal values for atomic mass. having an equal number
numbers of neutrons. of neutrons in the atomic
nucleus.
Atomic Isotopes have the same Isobars have different atomic Isotones have different
Number atomic number. numbers. atomic numbers.
Atomic Isotopes have a different Isobars have the same atomic Isotones have different
Mass atomic mass. mass. atomic mass.
Number of Isotopes have different Isobars have different Isotones the same
Neutrons numbers of neutrons. numbers of neutrons. number of neutrons.