Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)

Mr. Muhammad Azeem email id: azeem@biit.edu.pk, WhatsApp# 0345-5106587

(Week 1) Lecture 1 & 2

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are

 Introduction
 Benefits of computer
Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill

Computer
 A computer is a collection of parts.
 These parts are called components or devices.
 Each part does a different job.

Computers have been called “Mind Tools” because they enhance our ability to
perform tasks that require mental activity. Computers are adept to performing
fast calculations, sorting large lists and searching through vast information
libraries. All these activities humans can do but a computer can often
accomplish them much faster and accurately. Our ability to direct a computer’s
activity augments or complements our mental capabilities makes us more
productive. The key to making effective use of the computer as a tool is to
know what a computer is and how to use it.

Data Processing Before Computers:

To record and communicate data and information, prehistoric cave dwellers
painted pictures on the walls of their caves, and the ancient Egyptians wrote
on a crude form of paper called papyrus. Around 3000 B.C. About 2,000 years
later, in 1000 B.C. the Chinese invented a device: the abacus, as we know it,

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remains in wide use even today and is still considered a powerful tool for
performing mathematical computations.

Who Is the User?

Computer professional is a person in the field of computers for example, a
programmer, a systems analyst, or a computer operator who has formal
education in the technical aspects of using computers and who is concerned
only with supporting the computer's physical functions in producing
information for the user.

User is a person perhaps like yourself, someone without much technical

knowledge of computers but who makes decisions based on reports and other
results that computers produce. The user is not necessarily a computer expert
and may never need to become one. Most companies prefer to train new
employees in the specific computer uses applicable to their business and these
applications may never require the user to have much technical knowledge.

What Is a Computer System?

The term computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of
electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part mechanical)
components. By itself, a computer has no intelligence and is referred to as
hardware. A computer doesn't come to life until it is connected to other parts
of a computer system. A computer system is a combination of five elements:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data/information
4. Procedures
5. People

When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer

system, connectivity becomes a sixth system element. In other words, the
manner in which the various individual systems are connected. For example,

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by phone lines, microwave transmission, or satellite it is an element of the

total computer system.

Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware
how to perform a task. Without software instructions, the hardware doesn't
know what to do.

The purpose of a computer system is to convert data into information. Data is

raw, unevaluated facts and figures. Concepts, or instructions. This raw
material is processed into useful information. In other words, information is
the product of data processing. This processing includes refining,
summarizing, categorizing, and otherwise manipulating data into a useful
form for decision making.

Benefits of computer

Increase your productivity

Computers increase your productivity and, with a good understanding of the
software running on them, you become more productive at everything you do.
For example, once you have a basic understanding of using a word processor,
you can create, store, edit, share, and print documents and letters. Each of
these things was either impossible or much slower with all pre-existing
technologies.

Connects you to the Internet

Connecting a computer to the Internet is what unlocks the full potential of a
computer. Once connected, your choices and available options are almost
limitless. Many of the benefits listed on this page are with a computer
connected to the Internet.

Computers are capable of storing and accessing vast amounts of information.

For example, a computer and devices like eBook readers can store hundreds
or thousands of books, given enough storage capacity. By being able to store

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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books, documents, movies, pictures, and songs digitally, you can quickly find
what you need with a search and share information between devices. It
eliminates the need for paper and plastics used to make non-digital versions
of the media.

Helps sort, organize, and search through information

A computer can use its stored information more efficiently than any other
device. In our earlier example, we mentioned the ability to store thousands of
books. Once those books are stored on a computer, they can be sorted into
categories, alphabetized, and then searched to find exactly what you are
looking for in less than a minute. Trying to find the same text in a thousand
books would take a human months, if not years.

Get a better understanding of data

Computers can also give you a better understanding of data and big data. For
example, a business could have a database of items they've sold. Using that
data, they can quickly identify what sells best at what time of year, when to
mark up or down items, and what items are not selling. Having access to this
type of information can give the business a better understanding of their
customers and a competitive edge against their competitors.

Keeps you connected

Computers can help keep you connected with long distance friends and family
over e-mail and social networking. You can also connect with millions of other
people that share the same interests as you through online forums, chat, and
VoIP services, like Skype. Being able to connect to people all around the world
is also an excellent way to meet people you would normally never meet.

Another great thing about communication on the Internet is that it's fast
compared to other forms of communication. For example, you could send
someone an e-mail on the other side of the planet, and have it arrive in less
than a few minute. Snail mail (postal mail) could take days or even weeks to
arrive.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Can help you learn and keep you informed

The computer connected to the Internet is a great learning tool and something
that helps answer almost any question, teaching you anything that interests
you. You can also access news around the world to keep up-to-date with all
of the latest news, weather, and stories around the world. You could learn a
new profession by reading websites or watching videos. You could even sign
up for online courses that teach you about any subject you'd learn in school.

Making money online

When connected to the Internet, a computer can help you make money many
different ways. For example, it is much cheaper to create and run an online
store than having a physical store. Also, once online, your store or product
has a global audience and you could sell to anyone in the world.

Improves your employment options

Knowing how to use a computer and having a computer can improve your
employment options and allow you to work from home. For example, in the
2020 COVID-19 outbreak many offices needed their employees to work from
home. Knowing how to use a computer and having a computer at home
allowed many office workers to continue their work even during the crisis.

Improves abilities
Are you not the best speller, have poor grammar, not great at math, don't
have a great memory, or need help with something else? Using a computer
improves all your abilities, or if you have a hard time learning, you can rely
on the computer as an assistant.

Can help automate and monitor

A computer can do is be programmed to complete a task and, once done, be
made to repeat that task as many times as needed. For example, a computer
could be programmed to move a robotic arm that builds a part for a car or
filter, sort, respond, and forward incoming e-mails.

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A computer can automate most imaginable tasks and can also be programmed
to wait for something to occur. For example, computers connected to a camera
can be programmed to watch for movement and, when detected, send an alert
and begin recording.

Save time
Today, there are many services that help save you time. Several examples
are listed below.

Using a site like Amazon, you can find many of the same products you would
find at a store for the same price or cheaper. You can also have those items
shipped to your door without having to leave your home.

You could use an online banking site to view your bank balance and pay bills.
If your favorite restaurant has a website, you can order take out without
having to wait in line.
You can view online traffic cameras and maps with traffic information to find
the quickest route.

Assist the physically challenged

Computers are also great tools for the blind, with special software it can read
what is on the screen.

Finally, for those who have a hard time leaving the house, shopping, or
socializing, a computer can help with all of these tasks.

Keep you entertained

With a computer, you could store and listen to millions of songs and watch a
DVD or Blu-ray movie if you have a disc drive. When connected to the
Internet, you could watch an endless amount of streaming and online videos
from popular sites, like Amazon, Netflix, and YouTube.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
Mr. Muhammad Azeem email id: azeem@biit.edu.pk, WhatsApp# 0345-5106587

(Week 2) Lecture 03 & 04

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are

 Basic Operations of Computer System

 Central processing unit
Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill

Basic Operations of Computer System

The questions about the basic operations of a computer may confuse you at
first glimpse as it is a versatile machine doing numerous tasks such as playing
awesome games, useful calculations, huge storage, quick retrieval, processing
spreadsheets, creating and managing documents, playing songs and movies
and what not? So, among this huge list of tasks, a computer performs, how
to identify which ones are basic operations of a computer?

Rather than drifting away with the huge list of wonders that computers are
doing every day, you should think about the aspect for what the question is
expecting. This is a question from Computer Fundamentals chapter and
specifically, it is about Computer System.

Now after you identify the area that this question is targeting, it will be easier
to hit the answer. It's asking about the basic operations of a computer system.

Every Computer has five basic operations

 Inputting
 Outputting
 Processing
 Storing
 Controlling

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Inputting:
Inputting is a basic operation of a computer system. This is the act of feeding
in the data and instruction to the computer (by computer here it means the
processing unit).

A computer system consists of different functional units and Input Unit does
the operation of Inputting. By inputting you should understand that it is to
send data and/or instruction to the computer in the required format.
Information and programs are entered into the computer through Input
devices such as the keyboard, disks, or through other computers via network
connections or modems connected to the Internet.

The input device also retrieves information off disks. Because Computers work
with bits, there should be some mechanism to make data understandable by
CPU (the process is called encoding) and also the information produced by
CPU must be converted to the human readable form (called decoding). Input
Unit devices take care of encoding.

The devices that help you to input data and instructions are known as Input
Devices. Keyboard, Mouse, Light Pen, Joystick, Scanners, Microphone etc. are
some examples of input unit devices. The devices that can send data directly
to the CPU or which does not need to encode it before sending to CPU are
considered Direct Entry Input Devices such as scanners. Devices such as a
keyboard which require encoding data so that it is in the form a CPU can
understand are Indirect Entry Input Devices.

Outputting:
This unit takes care of receiving processed information from processing unit
and present it to the user in the suitable form.

A computer produces results in binary form and output unit does decoding to
make it usable to the users. The devices that can output information from a
computer are known as output unit devices. Monitors, Speakers, Projectors
are soft output devices whereas printers, plotters produce hard copy output.
Soft copy output is something that is temporary or is available only as long as
the output device is turned on. Contrary to these are hard copy output which

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is permanent. The printout in a paper is not lost because the printer is turned
off!
Processing:
The process of performing arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal-
to, less-than or greater-than etc.) on data to convert them into a useful
information.

The task of performing calculations and comparisons are known as processing.

The unit in Computer System that is responsible for processing is ALU

(Arithmetic and Logical Unit). ALU is the place where actual execution of the
instructions takes place during the processing operations. All calculations &
comparisons are made in the ALU. The data and instructions stored in the
primary storage are transferred to it as when required. ALU may produce
Intermediate results and store it in the memory which is also transferred back
to the ALU for the final processing. After completion of processing the final
results are send to storage units from ALU.

Storing:
Saving data and instruction to make them readily available for processing
whenever required.

Before actual processing start, data & instructions entered to the computer
must be stored somewhere inside the computer. Similarly, results produced
by the computer are required to be stored before it is passed to the output
unit. The intermediate result produced by the computer must also be stored
for further processing. Thus the importance of storage Unit in a computer
system is vital.

Based on whether the storage device is inside the main machine or not, it can
be internal or external storage. Similarly, looking at whether the storage
device works close with CPU or works as backup media, they can be primary
storage or secondary storage. Primary storage is also called primary memory.
Secondary storage is known by other names such as backup storage or
secondary memory. For the storage purpose, a computer system may have

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different devices such as registers, cache, RAM/ROM, flash, magnetic disks,

and optical disks and so on.
Controlling:
Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
performed.

ALU dose does not know what should be done with the data likewise, output
unit does not know when the result should be displayed. By selecting,
interning and seeing to the execution of the program the CU is able to maintain
order and direct the operations of the entire system. CU doesn't perform any
actual processing on data yet it is known as a central nervous system for the
comforts of the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire system.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Computer Organization
Every Computer has four basic units: Input Unit, Output Unit, Storage Unit,
and Central Processing Unit Organization of these units are shown below.

Input Unit:
 It accepts (or read) instruction and data from outside world.
 It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form.
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system
for further processing.

Output Unit:
 It accepts the results produced by the computer.
 It converts these coded results to human acceptable form.
 It supplies the converted result to outside world.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

Arithmetic logic unit of a computer system is the place where the actual
executions of information take place during processing.

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Control Unit (CU):

Control unit of a computer system manage and coordinates the operations
of all other components of the computer system.

ALU + CU = CPU

Storage Unit:
The storage unit of a computer system holds or stores the following:
 Data and instruction required for processing (received from input
unit)
 Intermediate results of processing
 Final results of processing before they are released to an output
device

Types of Storage:
Primary Storage Secondary Storage
Use to hold running program instruction Used to hold stored program
instructions
Used to hold data intermediate results, Used to hold data and
and results of ongoing processing of information of stored jobs on
job(s) which Computer system is not
currently working but need to
hold them for processing later

Fast in operation Slower than primary storage

Small capacity Larger capacity

Expensive Cheaper than primary storage

Volatile Retain Data even without power

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 CPU is the brain of a Computer System.
 It has two components i.e. Control Unit and Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
 With the help of these components it performs all comparison and
calculation, and controls the operations of other units of the Computer
System.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

ALU perform arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication
etc.) and logical operations (less than, greater than, equal to etc.)
 When a control unit selects a instruction that need arithmetic or logic
operations to be performed, CU pass it to ALU

Control Unit (CU):

 It does not perform any processing of data; it acts as a central
nervous system.
 The CU selects and interprets program instructions and then
coordinates their execution by controlling other units.
 CU has a decoder that basically decodes and interprets the instruction.
 CU has some special purpose registers i.e. instruction registers and
program control register.
 These register assists CU in instruction selection.

Note:
When entire CPU (both ALU and CU) is contained on a single tiny silicon chip,
it is called a microprocessor.

Instruction Set:
 CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine
instructions, called its instruction set.
 Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add, subtract,
compare etc.) in their instruction set.
 CPUs made by different manufacturers have different instruction sets.
 Manufacturers tend to group their CPUs into “families” having similar
instruction sets.

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Registers:
 Special memory units, called registers, are used to hold information on
a temporary basis as the instructions are interpreted and executes by
the CPU.
 Registers are part of the CPU (not main memory) of a computer.
 The length of a register, sometimes called its word size, equals the
number of bits it can store.
 With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with 32-bit registers
can process data twice larger than one with 16-bit registers.

 The CU take the address of the next instruction to be executed from

Program Counter register and read the instruction from corresponding
address into the Instruction register.
 CU sends the operation and address parts of the instruction to the
decoder and Memory address register (MAR).
 Decoder interprets the instruction and loads the data contents into
Memory Buffer register.
 If the operation is logical or arithmetic, CU passes execution to ALU. The
ALU execute the instruction and store intermediate results into
Accumulator and write final results to Memory Buffer register, so that it
can be write to memory.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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(Week 03) Lecture 05 & 06

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are

 Operating System
 Computer Software
Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill
OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating system is system software that controls the resources (CPU,
memory, I/O devices etc.) of computer systems among different processes
(running programs). Moreover, it provides users with an interface to utilize
system resources.

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer

hardware, software resources, and provides common services for computer
programs.

Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system
and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time,
mass storage, printing, and other resources.

For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the
operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the
computer hardware, although the application code is usually executed directly
by the hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is
interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain
a computer – from cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers
and supercomputers.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Objectives:
 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient
manner.

 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.

 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.

 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making

it easier for the users to access and use other resources.

 To manage the resources of a computer system.

 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource

requests, and mediating conflicting requests from different programs
and users.

 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and

programs.

 Making a Computer System easy to use:


Computer System consists of one or more processor, memory,
and several I/O devices.

These resources are shared among several processes at a time.

Writing a program to efficiently manage these resources require
the in-depth knowledge of functioning of these resources.

To make Operating System usable by everyone, it is necessary
to hide these complexities from users.

Moreover, Operating System must have user friendly interface.
So that everyone can use it.


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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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 Managing the resource of Computer System:

 Operating System manages all the resource of computer

system e.g.

 Keeping track of who is using what resources

 Granting of resources

 Accounting of resource usage

 Managing of Conflicting request for a same resource from multiple

processes.

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Main Functions:

Process Management:
A process is running program and it utilizes system resources such as
memory, processor time and I/O devices. In a computer system, there may
be several processes running at the same time. Process management basically
manages system resources among different processes using appropriates
scheduling.

Memory Management:
A process need to be loaded into main memory for execution. To improve
system performance several processes are load in to main memory at a time.
Operating System is also responsible for allocation and de-allocation of
memory to processes.

File Management:
Information is stored in files. File management is related to file organization,
storage, retrieval, naming, sharing and protection.

Device Management:
Involves device sharing among processes.

Security:
Responsible for protection of information and resources from unauthorized
access.

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Computer Software
We often use the terms “Hardware” and “Software” in connection with
computers.

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as the

case, central processing unit (CPU), monitor, keyboard, computer data
storage, graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.

By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and run by
hardware. Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to
changes, whereas software is "soft" because it is easy to change.

Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or

instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing
system, although other systems exist with only hardware.

Hardware:
Hardware refers to the physical devices of a computer system e.g.

 Input Devices
 Output Device
 Storage Unit
 Processing Unit
 Control Unit etc.

Software:
A computer cannot do anything on its own. We need to give a sequence of
instruction to make it do a desire task. Such a sequence of instruction written
in a language understood by a computer is known as a computer program.
Software refers to a collection of programs, associated document (flowcharts
or manual etc.) describing the programs and how they are to be used.

Program:
 Program is an algorithm written in grammar of programming
language. It is a set of rules for forming our program.


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 Simply program is a set of instructions that are executed in a

language.

Language:
 Every language has a well-defined vocabulary (grammar).
 Each program has to be written following rigid grammatical rules.

Relationship between Hardware and Software:

 Both hardware and software are necessary for a computer to do useful

job. They are complementary to each other.

 Some hardware can be loaded with different software to make a
computer system perform different types of jobs.

 Except for upgrades, hardware is normally a one-time expense,
whereas software is a continuing expense.

 Hardware and software are dependent on each other. Both are

required for the computer to produce a useful output.

Types of Software:

Most software can be divided into two major categories:

 System software is designed to control the operation and extend the

processing capability of a computer system.

 Application software is designed to solve a specific problem or to do a
specific task.

System Software:

 Make the operation of a computer system more effective and efficient.


 Help hardware components work together.


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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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 Provide support for the development and execution of application

software.

 Monitor effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU,
memory, peripherals, etc

 Programs included in a system software package are called system
programs and programmers who prepare them are called system
programmers.

 Examples of system software are operating systems, programming
language translators, utility programs, and communications software.

Application Software:

 Solve a specific problem or do a specific task.


 Programs included in an application software package are called
application programs and the programmers who prepare them are called
application programmers.

 System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to
disk, or rendering text onto a display device.

 Examples of application software are word processing, inventory
management, preparation of tax returns, banking, etc.

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Logical System Architecture:

System software is any computer software which manages and controls
computer hardware so that application software can perform a task.

Hardware:
Physical devices/ Components of computer system. Interacts with system
software.

System Software:
Software that constitute the operating and programming environment of the
computer system. Interacts with hardware and also it interacts with
application software.

Application Software:
Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem. Interact with
system software and also it interacts with users.

Users:
Normally interacts with the system via the user interface provided by the
application software.

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(Week 4) Lecture 7 & 8

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are
 Applications of AI
 Applications of Databases
Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill

1. Discussion on the words “Artificial” & “Intelligence” :

 Artificial:
“Artificial” normally refer to those things which are manmade. Its opposite is
“natural‟ which refer to those things which already exist in this world in their
original form without the alterations made by man.

Examples:
i. Manufacturing robots
ii. Self-driving cars
iii. Smart assistants
iv. Social-media monitoring

 Intelligence:
Intelligence means the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or
trying situation. Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for
abstraction, logic understanding, self-awareness, learning, knowledge,
planning, problem-solving. Intelligence is a natural property, which distinguish
humans from other creatures.

There are three basic properties to identify the intelligence.

1. Communication
2. Problem solving /reasoning/decision making
3. Learning

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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These symptoms of intelligence and many more appears in the human beings
only because they “think”. Thinking means some sort of processing/calculation
in mind.
2. Explaining Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Science which deals with helping
machines finds solutions to complex problems in a more human-like
fashion. This generally involves borrowing characteristics from human
intelligence, and applying them as algorithms in a computer friendly way.
Artificial Intelligence has grown to be very popular in today’s world. It is
the simulation of natural intelligence in machines that are programmed
to learn and mimic the actions of humans. These machines are able to
learn with experience and perform human-like tasks.

3. How do we measure if Artificial Intelligence is

acting like a human?
Even if we reach that state where an AI can behave as a human does, how
can we be sure it can continue to behave that way? We can base the human-
likeness of an AI entity with the:
 Turing Test
 The Cognitive Modelling Approach
 The Law of Thought Approach
 The Rational Agent Approach

Turing Test:
The basis of the Turing Test is that the Artificial Intelligence entity should
be able to hold a conversation with a human agent. The human agent ideally
should not able to conclude that they are talking to an Artificial Intelligence.
To achieve these ends, the AI needs to possess these qualities.

The Cognitive Modelling Approach:

Cognitive modeling is an area of computer science that deals with
simulating human problem solving and mental processing in a computerized
model.

The Law of Thought Approach:

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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In this approach, the whole emphasis was on correct inferences. Making

correct inferences is sometimes part of being a rational agent, because one
way to act rationally is to reason logically to the conclusion that a given
action will achieve one's goals, and then to act on that conclusion. The Laws
of Thought are a large list of logical statements that govern the operation
of our mind. The same laws can be codified and applied to artificial
intelligence algorithms.

The Rational Agent Approach:

A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty,
and acts in a way to maximize its performance measure with all possible
actions. According to the Laws of Thought approach, an entity must behave
according to the logical statements. But there are some instances, where
there is no logical right thing to do, with multiple outcomes involving
different outcomes and corresponding compromises. The rational agent
approach tries to make the best possible choice in the current
circumstances. It means that it’s a much more dynamic and adaptable
agent.

4. Components of Artificial Intelligence:

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Machine Learning:
Machine learning or ML teaches a machine how to make inferences and
decisions based on past experience. It identifies patterns, analyses past
data to infer the meaning of these data points to reach a possible
conclusion without having to involve human experience. ML focuses on
the development of algorithms that can analyze data and make predictions.

Neutral Network:
Neural Networks work on the similar principles as of Human Neural cells.
They are a series of algorithms that captures the relationship between
various underlying variables and processes the data as a human brain
does. This process analyzes data many times to find associations and give
meaning to previously undefined data. Through different learning models,
like positive reinforcement, the machine is taught it has successfully
identified the object.

Deep learning:
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that employs artificial neural
networks that learn by processing data. Artificial neural networks mimic
the biological neural networks in the human brain. It teaches a machine
to process inputs through layers in order to classify, infer and predict the
outcome.

Natural Language Processing (NLP):

NLP is a science of reading, understanding, interpreting a language by a
machine. The ultimate goal of NLP is to enable seamless interaction with
the machines we use every day by teaching systems to understand human
language in context and produce logical responses.

Cognitive Computing:
Cognitive computing is another essential component of AI. Its purpose is
to imitate and improve interaction between humans and machines.
Cognitive computing algorithms try to mimic a human brain by analyzing
text/speech/images/objects in a manner that a human does and tries to
give the desired output.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Computer Vision:
Computer vision algorithms tries to understand an image by breaking
down an image and studying different parts of the objects. Computer
vision is an integral field of AI, enabling computers to identify, process and
interpret visual data.

5. Types of Artificial Intelligence:

There are 3 types of AI
 Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI)
 Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
 Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)

Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI):

These Artificial Intelligence systems are designed to solve one single
problem and would be able to execute a single task really well. They have
narrow capabilities, like recommending a product for an e-commerce user
or predicting the weather.

Artificial General Intelligence (AGI):

Artificial general intelligence (AGI) is the representation of generalized
human cognitive abilities in software so that, faced with an unfamiliar task,
the AI system could find a solution. AGI is the intelligence of a machine that
could successfully perform any intellectual task that a human being can.

Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI):

Artificial super intelligence (ASI), is the hypothetical AI that doesn't just
mimic or understand human intelligence and behavior; ASI is where
machines become self-aware and surpass the capacity of human
intelligence and ability. This would include decision making, taking rational
decisions, and even includes things like making better art and building
emotional relationships.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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6. Use cases for AI:

 Data security
 Fraud detection
 Marketing personalization
 Speech recognition
 Visual inspection
 Object detection and text analytics.

7. Application OF AI :

Applications of AI in Medicine:
 A medical clinic can use AI systems to organize bed schedules, make
a staff rotation and provide medical information.
 AI has also application in fields of cardiology (CRG), neurology (MRI),
complex operations of internal organs, etc.
 It also has an application in image guided surgery and image analysis
and enhancement
 Finding indicators of diabetic retinopathy in eye images

Applications of AI in Music:
 Scientists are trying to make the computer emulate the activities of
the skillful musician
 It can be used to recommend customers songs and also create the
music itself
 Composition, performance, music theory, sound processing are some
of the major areas on which research in music and AI are focusing
on chucks, smart music, etc.

Applications of AI in Telecommunication:
 It use advance algorithms to look for patterns within the data
 Enabling telcos to both detect and predict network anomalies
 Many telecommunications companies make use of heuristic search in
the management of their workforces

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Applications of AI in Gaming:
 AI is used to generate responsive, adaptive or intelligent behaviors
primarily in non-player characters (NPC’s) similar to human-like
intelligence
 The billion-dollar game company Epic Games created a believable
virtual human in an collaborate effort with Cubic Motion, Tencent, and
Vicon.
 AI in gaming also helps to increase the player’s interest and
satisfaction over a long period of time.

Applications of AI in Banking:
 In august 2001, robots beat humans in a simulated financial trading
competition
 Organize operations, invest in stocks and manage properties
 Some other applications include loan investigation. ATM design, safe
and fast banking, etc.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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1. What is database?
Database is an “organized collection of logically related data”
1) Data:
Stored representation of objects and events that have meaning and
importance in user’s environment.
Example:
Assume you are going to build database of university, then you must
have to store the data about students, registration, examination,
faculty, etc.

2) Logically related data:

It means data should be relevant in some context and irrelevant data must
not be included.
Example:
Assume you are going to collect the data of student in University
system: In University system; student name, age, qualification, father
name will be logically related and should be included (collected) in this
system. While no. of his/her sisters, no. of his/her brothers is not related
in the context of University system. Even this is also data about student
but logically not related in the context of University system. Hence, this
data should not be included in University system.

3) Organized collection:
It means data should be arranged/structured in such a way that one can
effectively process it when necessary.

Example:
Unorganized data:
RawalpindiKhubaib19

Organized data:
Name: Khubaib
City: Rawalpindi
Age: 19

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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2. Differentiate between data and information:

Simple difference between data and information is that information is data
that have been processed in such a way that the knowledge of the person who
uses the data is increased.

Example of data:
 Khubaib Ahmed
 19
 Ali Akbar
 Islam
 20
 1234
 Rawalpindi
 Islam
 Islamabad
 2995

From above data we can obtain some knowledge on the base of guess. This
data can be converted into information by doing some process as follow.

Example of information:
Name City Roll number Age Religion
Khubaib Rawalpindi 2995 19 Islam
Ahmed
Ali Akbar Islamabad 1234 20 Islam

Here, the process to convert data into information was adding a few additional
data items and providing some structure. After that we recognize that it’s a
data of some class; name, city, roll no, age and religion.

3. Metadata:
Data about data is called metadata; just like in above example name, age, roll
no, and age is a data that is used to describe actual data. So, this additional
data is called metadata.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Metadata is a data that describe the properties and characteristics of end user
data, and the context of that data.

4. Why database?
Database is an essential need of current age due to following reasons.
 Shift from computation to information
 Data is everywhere.
 Each and every field of life is incomplete without data.

 Data is increasing rapidly

 So, there is a need to arrange and manage rapidly increasing
data. This need of arrangement can be fulfilled by database
need of management can be fulfilled by some system
(database management system)

5. Advantages of database:
 Related data is collected at one place.
 Data will be well organized.
 User’s operations can be performed on data. o
Retrieving/accessing
 Updating/modifying
 Removing/deleting
 Entering new relevant data
 Processing can be made to convert the data into information
 Converted information can be used to support decision making.
 Reports
 Graphs
 Views
 Data can be shared

Examples of database application

• Purchases from the supermarket
• Purchases using your credit card
• Booking a holiday at the travel agents
• Using the local library
• Taking out insurance

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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• Renting a video
• Using the Internet
• Studying at university

6. Approaches to create and manage database:

There are 2 possible approaches to create and manage database
 File Based Approach
 DBMS (database management system) Approach

What is File Base Approach?

An early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.
 Collection of application programs that perform services for the end
users (e.g. reports).
 Each program defines and manages its own data.

Example:
Assume the Property business; in this business different type of business can
be stored. E.g. Sales, Contracts, etc.

In the above example the data is stored in two files. Each file has different
structure; therefore, it is difficult to write a single application to perform the
user’s operation on created database. Hence, there is a need to write an
application for each file with different storage structure. As given below:

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Limitations of File Based Approach:

 Separation and isolation of data
 Duplication of data (duplication is wasteful, additional storage
space)
 Data dependence
 Incompatible file formats
 Fixed queries/proliferation of application programs

Database Management System Approach

An approach that uses DBMS to create and maintain a database is called
database management system approach.
 All user will interact with single application.
 DBMS will tell us how to read/write data from database and provide us
controlled access to database.

Database Management System (DBMS)

A software system that is used to create, maintain and provide controlled
access to user over the database is called DBMS.

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Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Advantages of DBMS Approach:

 Program data independence
 Data redundancy
 Improved data consistency
 Improved data sharing
 Increased productivity of application development
 Improved data quality
 Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
 Reduced program maintenance

Disadvantages of DBMS Approach:

 New, specialized personnel
 Installation and management cost and complexity
 Conversion costs
 Need for explicit backup and recovery
 Organizational conflict

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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(Week 5) Lecture 9 & 10

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are

 Computer Languages
 Assembly & High-level Languages
 Compiler, Linker & Interpreter
Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill

Computer Languages

A programmer uses computer languages to instruct a computer what he/she

wants to do. All computer languages have been classified broadly into three
categories:
1. Machine Language
2. Assembly Language
3. High-Level Language

Machine Language:
 Only language of a computer understood by it without using a
translation program.
 Normally written as string of binary 1s and 0s.
 Written using decimal digits if the circuitry of the computer being used
permits this.
 Typical Machine Language Instruction format is

OPCODE: Tells the computer which operation to perform from the instruction
set of the computer.

OPERAND: Tells the address of the data on which the operation is to be

performed.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Characteristics:
 Can be executed very fast (because no need for further translation).
 Machine Dependent (as internal design of every computer is different
so, machine language also vary computer to computer)
 Difficult to Program (Programmer need to remember OPCODE and
storage location of OPERAND)
 Error Prone (Lack of indication for error)
 Difficult to Modify

Assembly Language:
A language that allows use of letters and symbols instead of numbers for
representing instruction and storage location is called as assembly language.

Unlike machine language, uses ADD instead of binary 1110 or decimal 14.

Allow storage location to be represented in form of alphanumeric addresses

instead of numeric addresses e.g. represents memory location 1000, 1001,
and 1002 as FRST, SCND, and ANSR respectively.

As computer can only execute machine language directly, so an assembly

language code needs to be translated into machine language. A translator
program, that perform assembly language to machine language is known as,
Assembler.

Advantages:
 Easier to understand and use (as it uses symbols and letters to
represents OPCODE and addresses).
 Easier to locate and correct error (with the help of assembler).
 Easier to Modify.
 No worry about sequence number of addresses.
 Efficiency of machine language (As there is one-to-one correspondence
between assembly language and machine language, so it enjoys the
efficiency of its corresponding machine language).

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Limitation:
 Machine dependent (Different Assemblers for different Computers)
 As Machine dependent so required knowledge of Hardware
 Machine level coding (A there is one-to-one correspondence between
machine and assembly language, so there will be as many instructions
in assembly as we will have in machine language)

High Level Language:

 Machine Independent
 Do not require programmers to know anything about the internal
structure of computer on which high-level language programs will be
executed
 Enable programmers to write instructions using English words and
familiar mathematical symbols and expressions

Advantages:
 Machine independent
 Easier to learn
 Fewer errors
 Better Documentation

Limitations:
 Lower efficiency
 Less flexibility

How Program executes?

 User writes a program in C language (high-level language) using IDE.
 The C compiler, compiles the program and translates it to assembly
program (low-level language).
 An assembler than translates the assembly program into machine code
(object).
 A linker tool is used to link all the parts of the program together for
execution (executable machine code).
 A loader loads all of them into memory and then the program is
executed.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Video Link:

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLeby327DX1cj2K1JNdj18XGwACKF4MwYm

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Compiler:
A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular
programming language and turns them into machine language or "code" that a
computer's processor uses.

Interpreter:
As the name suggests, an interpreter transforms or interprets a high-level
programming code into code that can be understood by the machine (machine code)
or into an intermediate language that can be easily executed as well.

The interpreter reads each statement of code and then converts or executes it
directly.

Compiler VS Interpreter:
Humans can only understand high-level languages, which are called source code.
Computers, on the other hand, can only understand programs written in binary
languages, so either an interpreter or compiler is required.

Programming languages are implemented in two ways: interpretation and

compilation.

The interpreter reads each statement of code and then converts or executes it
directly. In contrast, an assembler or a compiler converts a high-level source code
into native (compiled) code that can be executed directly by the operating system
(e.g. by creating a .exe program).

Compilers must generate intermediate object code that requires more memory to be
linked, contrarily to interpreters which tend to use memory more efficiently.

Programming languages that use interpreters include Python, Ruby, and JavaScript,
while programming languages that use compilers include Java, C++, and C.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Linker:
In computer science, a linker is a computer program that takes one or more object
files generated by a compiler and combines them into one, executable program.

Computer programs are usually made up of multiple modules that span separate
object files, each being a compiled computer program. The program as a whole refers
to these separately compiled object files using symbols. The linker combines these
separate files into a single, unified program, resolving the symbolic references as it
goes along.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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(Week 6) Lecture 11 & 12

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are

 Network Basics
 Network Topologies
 Architecture
 Data Transmission Characteristics
 Internet & Its Services
Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill

Computer Networks
Computer networks are defined as interconnected computer systems.
Computer networks help the user to share resources and help in
communication. The following are the most important benefits of the computer
network:

Data sharing:
Computer network helps in sharing of user data such as data files

Hardware Resource sharing:

Computer network helps in sharing of hardware resources such as printers,
scanners, pc cams etc.

User communication:
Users can communicate via computer networks by using emails, news groups,
teleconferencing etc.

Network gaming:
Many games are available with remote multiple
players support with the help of networks.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Internet:
Internet is a Network of networks which links many different types of
computers all over the world, using a common mechanism of identifying
computers and common set communication protocols (rules).

Services Provided by Internet:

  Electronic Mail (e-mail)
  File Transfer Protocol
  Telnet
 Usenet News

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Electronic Mail:
Electronic mail (e-mail) service enable user to send a mail (message) to
another internet in any part of the world in seconds. An e-mail can contain
not only text documents but also image, audio and video data.

 E-mail has several advantages over different source of communication

 e.g. telephone, fax and simple letter post.
  It is faster than paper mail
 Unlike telephone, the persons communicating need not be available at
 the same time.
 Unlike fax document, the receiver of an e-mail document can store it
in a computer, and can edit it easily.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP):

FTP enables user to move files from one computer to another over the
internet. A file may contain any type of digital information such as text
document, image, artwork, movie, sound, software etc. To transfer file
to/from user need access right e.g. YouTube and Wikipedia.

 The process of moving a file from a remote computer to one’s own

 computer is known as Downloading
 The process of moving a file from one’s own computer to a remote
computer is known as Uploading.

Telnet:
Telnet service enables users to get login to another computer on the internet
from his/her local computer. This login process is referred as “remote login”.
The user type’s telnet command after that remote computer asks user login
information (ID and password). When user provide name and password
remote computer authenticate login information. If login information is true
it allow user to get login and avail services provided by remote computer.
Usage of this service is follows:

  Using the computing power of remote computer.

 For using some software on a remote computer, which not available on
 user’s local computer.
 For accessing information from a database on a remote computer.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Usenet News:
Usenet service enables a group of users to exchange their
views/ideas/information on some common topic to all members belonging to
the group. Several Usenet groups are exists over the internet.

In a moderated newsgroup only selected members have right to post a

message to virtual notice board. Other members can only read the posted
message.

World Wide Web (www):

is more promising method of organizing and accessing information on the
internet. WWW uses the concept of Hypertext. Hypertext is a way of storing
of information and its retrieval. Hypertext document contain several links and
by clicking on these links user can get vast information over a desire topic.
Hypertext document on the internet are known as Web Pages. These web
pages are created using a special language known as, Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML).

The WWW uses client-server model. Server computer provide services while
client computer access these information from server using Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP). HTTP is a rule of communication among different types of
computer over the internet in Client-Server model.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Network Topologies
Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each other
is known as topology. There are five types of topology.
1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology:

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the

network through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it
means that the link only carries data for the two connected devices only. Let’s
say we have n devices in the network then each device must be connected
with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n
devices would be n (n-1)/2.

Advantages:
1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect
other links and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus
unauthorized access is not possible.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages:
1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and
headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O
ports required must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number
of devices with a dedicated point to point link.

Star Topology:

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device

called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices, a device must have to communicate through
hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the
data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages:
1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to
be connected with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected
with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages:
1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work
without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the
central system of star topology.

Bus Topology:

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this
main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the
drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted over the main
cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.

Advantages:
1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.
2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages:
1. Difficultly in fault detection.
2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with
backbone cable.

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 Application of Information and Communication Technologies (CSC-100)
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Ring Topology:

In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side
of it. There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices
on the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring
topology. If a device wants to send data to another device, then it sends the
data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the
received data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this data
until the intended device receives it.

Advantages:
1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two
links are required to be changed.

Disadvantages:
1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward
due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

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Hybrid topology:

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For

example a combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid
topology.

Advantages:
1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example,
scalability is our concern then we can use star topology instead of bus
topology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the
existing networks with different topologies.

Disadvantages:
1. Fault detection is difficult.
2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

Video Link:

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLeby327DX1cj2K1JNdj18XGwACKF4MwYm

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Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design
of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network:
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two or more PCs are connected
and share resources without going through a separate server computer.
A P2P network can be an ad hoc connection—a couple of computers connected
via a Universal Serial Bus to transfer files.
A P2P network also can be a permanent infrastructure that links a half-dozen
computers in a small office over copper wires.
A P2P network can be a network on a much grander scale in which special
protocols and applications set up direct relationships among users over the
Internet.

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Advantages:
 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
 Installation of peer to peer architecture is quite easy as each
computer manages itself.
 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop
working.

Disadvantages:
 Each computer has to take the backup rather than a central computer
and the security measures are to be taken by all the computers
separately.
 Scalability is a issue in a peer to Peer Architecture as connecting each
computer to every computer is a headache on a very large network.

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Client/Server network
A type of network in which server computer is connected to client
computers.
Client:
The client is a computer that requests service from the server. The type
of services that client request is taking the print, making a phone call, fetching
data from Google.com or any other website.
server:
A server is a computer that provides services to the client computer. A
server might be a web server of Google, print server, database server, file
server and fax server.

The server is also named the host computer. Host computer manages
hardware and software on the network. The server computer behaves as a
centralized storage area and it stores data, information and programs. Server
computer provides resources to the client computers. The server has more
processing power and thus contains more RAM. It is also expensive than the
client computer.

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Advantages:
 New features can be added to the server without affecting the network
 All clients, server and network work together in LAN and WAN
 Data security is well managed by the server
 New computers are added to the network without affecting network
performance

Disadvantages:
o In case of server failure entire network is down.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the
resources.
o Server maintenance cost is high as the server is the main component in
this Architecture

Data transmission characteristics:

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices by using
transmission medium (Wire or Wireless). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on some fundamental factors:
 Delivery
 Accuracy
 Timeliness
 Jitter

Delivery:
The primary task of a data communication system is to deliver or transfer data
from sender to receiver. The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended device or user and only
by that device or user.

Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. The receiver should receive
the exact same data which was sent by the sender. The protocol might require
to alter the sent data to protect and optimize the process. However, the
protocol should also reverse and restore the data back to its original form
before representing it to the receiver. The accuracy must be maintained.

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Timeliness:
Data must be delivered as they are produced, in the order they are produced
and without any significant delay. In the case of video and audio, late delivery
is useless. Communication system must deliver data in a timely manner.
Timely means delivering data without any delay (real-time transmission).

Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation of packet arrival time. Data is sent as packets,
that is, a chunk of the whole data is sent in each turn. These packets get re-
joined back in the target device to represent the complete data as it is. Each
packet is sent with a predefined delay or acceptable amount of delay. If
packets are sent without maintaining the predefined delay then an uneven
quality in the data might result.

Band width
Network bandwidth is a measurement indicating the maximum capacity of a
wired or wireless communications link to transmit data over a network
connection in a given amount of time. bandwidth is expressed as a bitrate and
measured in bits per second (bps).

Analog vs digital

Analog Signal:
An analog signal is time-varying and generally bound to a range , but there is
an infinite number of values within that continuous range. An analog signal
uses a given property of the medium to convey the signal’s information, such
as electricity moving through a wire.
When plotted on a voltage vs. time graph, an analog signal should produce a
smooth and continuous curve. There should not be any discrete value changes

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Digital Signal:
A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete
values. A digital signal can only take on one value from a finite set of possible
values at a given time. With digital signals, the physical quantity representing
the information can be many things:
 Variable electric current or voltage
 Phase or polarization of an electromagnetic field
 Acoustic pressure
 The magnetization of a magnetic storage media

Digital signals are used in all digital electronics, including computing

equipment and data transmission devices. When plotted on a voltage vs. time
graph, digital signals are one of two values,

Difference Between Analog And Digital Signal

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Continuous signals Discrete signals

Represented by sine waves Represented by square waves

Human voice, natural sound, analog Computers, optical drives, and other
electronic devices are a few examples electronic devices

Continuous range of values Discontinuous values

Records sound waves as they are Converts into a binary waveform.

Suited for digital electronics like

Only used in analog devices.
computers, mobiles and more.

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Internet:
Internet is a Network of networks which links many different types of
computers all over the world, using a common mechanism of identifying
computers and common set communication protocols (rules).

Services Provided by Internet:

 Electronic Mail (e-mail)
 File Transfer Protocol
 Telnet
 Usenet News

Electronic Mail:

Electronic mail (e-mail) service enable user to send a mail (message) to

another internet in any part of the world in seconds. An e-mail can contain
not only text documents but also image, audio and video data.
 E-mail has several advantages over different source of communication
e.g. telephone, fax and simple letter post.
 It is faster than paper mail
 Unlike telephone, the persons communicating need not be available at
the same time.
 Unlike fax document, the receiver of an e-mail document can store it in
a computer, and can edit it easily.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP):

FTP enables user to move files from one computer to another over the
internet. A file may contain any type of digital information such as text
document, image, artwork, movie, sound, software etc. To transfer file
to/from user need access right e.g. YouTube and Wikipedia.
 The process of moving a file from a remote computer to one’s own
computer is known as Downloading
 The process of moving a file from one’s own computer to a remote
computer is known as Uploading.

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Telnet:
Telnet service enables users to get login to another computer on the internet
from his/her local computer. This login process is referred as “remote login”.
The user type’s telnet command after that remote computer asks user login
information (ID and password). When user provide name and password
remote computer authenticate login information. If login information is true it
allow user to get login and avail services provided by remote computer. Usage
of this service is follows:
 Using the computing power of remote computer.
 For using some software on a remote computer, which not available on
user’s local computer.
 For accessing information from a database on a remote computer.

Usenet News:
Usenet service enables a group of users to exchange their
views/ideas/information on some common topic to all members belonging to
the group. Several Usenet groups are exists over the internet.

In a moderated newsgroup only selected members have right to post a

message to virtual notice board. Other members can only read the posted
message.

World Wide Web (www):

is more promising method of organizing and accessing information on the
internet. WWW uses the concept of Hypertext. Hypertext is a way of storing
of information and its retrieval. Hypertext document contain several links and
by clicking on these links user can get vast information over a desire topic.

Hypertext document on the internet are known as Web Pages. These web
pages are created using a special language known as, Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML).

The WWW uses client-server model. Server computer provide services while
client computer access these information from server using Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP). HTTP is a rule of communication among different types of
computer over the internet in Client-Server model.

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(Week 7) Lecture 13 & 14

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are

 Digital Marketing

Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill

1) What is digital marketing?

Digital marketing is also called “online marketing”. Digital marketing is the act
of selling products and services through channels such as social media, SEO,
email, and mobile apps. Any marketing that uses electronic devices to convey
promotional messaging and measure its impact. In practice, digital marketing
typically refers to marketing campaigns that appear on a computer, phone,
tablet, or other device.

2) Types of digital marketing:

The types of marketing are given below:
 Search engine optimization (SEO)
 Social Media Marketing
 Pay-per-Click (PPC)
 Content Marketing
 Affiliate Marketing
 Marketing automation
 Email Marketing

Search engine optimization (SEO):

It means the process of improving your site to increase its visibility when
people search for products or services related to your business in Google,
Bing, and other search engines. To make it a bit simpler, search engine
optimization means taking a piece of online content and optimizing it so
search engines like Google show it towards the top of the page when
someone searches for something. So, what are some things that can
improve a site’s SEO? It’s important to understand that one of the things that

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makes SEO challenging is that the answer to this question always depends on
Google and its most current algorithm. By using keywords and phrases, you
can use SEO to massively increase visibility and begin a lasting customer
relationship. SEO is defined as increasing a website’s rank in online search
results, and thus its organic site traffic, by using popular keywords and
phrases.

Social Media Marketing:

Social media marketing means driving traffic and brand awareness by
engaging people in discussion online. Social media marketing is the action of
creating content to promote your business and products on various social
media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. No one logs on to
social media looking for something to purchase, it's important to balance
promotion with entertainment. Compelling images and captions that
encourage your audience to like, share and comment will bring your brand
that much closer to gaining a customer. You must also be weaving social
elements into every aspect of your marketing efforts to create as many peer-
to-peer sharing opportunities as possible. The more your audience is inspired
to engage with your content, the more likely they are to share it, potentially
inspiring their peers to become customers as well. When using social media
marketing, firms can allow customers and Internet users to post user-
generated content (e.g., online comments, product reviews, etc.), also known
as "earned media," rather than use marketer-prepared advertising copy.

Pay-per-Click (PPC):
Pay-per-click (PPC) or Paid search, typically refers to the sponsored result on
the top or side of a search engine results page (SERP). When you set up a
pay-per-click campaign, you will also be able to choose whether you want your
ad or promoted results to be shown to users all over the world, or only within
a specific geographic area. An algorithm prioritizes each available ad based on
a number of factors, including:

 Ad quality
 Keyword relevance
 Landing page quality
 Bid amount

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Google is the largest provider of PPC services. Its platform, Google Ads,
is often the first stop for people beginning PPC marketing. These ads
charge you for every click and they can be tailored to appear when certain
search terms are entered, so your ads are being targeted to audiences seeking
something in particular. These ads can be extremely effective, as they rely on
data gleaned from individuals’ online behavior and are used to boost website
traffic by delivering relevant ads to the right people at the right time.

Content Marketing:
Effective content marketing is not outwardly promotional in nature, but rather
serves to educate and inspire consumers who are seeking information.
Content marketing works in symbiosis with other types of digital marketing:
It is a way to incorporate SEO search terms into fresh website content, and
the content created can be shared as social media posts and in email
marketing publications. Content marketing is a long-term strategy that
focuses on building a strong relationship with your target audience by
giving them high-quality content that is very relevant to them on a
consistent basis. Eventually, when customers make a purchase
decision, their loyalty already lies with you. They will purchase your
product and prefer it over competitors’ options. With content marketing,
the goal is to help your audience along their buyer's journey. First, identify
common FAQs and concerns your buyers have before they are ready to make
a purchase.

Then, create an editorial calendar to help you create and manage your
content. It also helps to have a content management system (CMS) to make
publishing easy.
Content marketing matters and there are plenty of stats to prove it:

 84% of consumers expect companies to produce entertaining and

helpful content experiences
 62% of companies that have at least 5,000 employees produce content
daily
 92% of marketers believe that their company values content as an
important asset

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Affiliate Marketing:
Affiliate marketing is the process by which an affiliate earns a commission for
marketing another person's or company's products. The affiliate simply
searches for a product they enjoy, then promotes that product and earns a
piece of the profit from each sale they make. Whether you want to be an
affiliate or find one, the first step is to make a connection with the other party.
You can use a platform designed to connect affiliates with retailers, or you can
start or join a single-retailer program. Affiliate marketers are sometimes
also known as the publisher. Affiliates can also range from single
individuals to entire companies. An affiliate marketing business can
produce a few hundred dollars in commissions each month or tens of
millions of dollars.
E.g.: Sometimes marketers promote their affiliate programs by offering
bonuses to anyone who purchases the offer. For example, you could give a
free eBook you wrote to any follower who makes a purchase. Promotions like
this encourage customers to buy by sweetening the deal.

Marketing automation:
Marketing automation is the process of leveraging software to automate
repetitive marketing tasks. Marketers use this software in order to help
nurture leads, often through integrations with customer relationship
management (CRM) and customer data platform (CDP) software. Sending out
surveys to gain feedback on products, services, and updates is another
excellent marketing automation example. Marketing automation uses
software to power digital marketing campaigns, improving the efficiency and
relevance of advertising.
According to statistics:

 90% of US consumers find personalization either “very” or “somewhat”

appealing
 81% of consumers would like the brands they engage with to
understand them better
 77% of companies believe in the value of real-time personalization, yet
60% struggle with it

Marketing automation can help you gain valuable insight into which programs
are working and which aren’t, and it will provide metrics to allow you to speak
to digital marketing’s efforts on your company’s bottom line.

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Email Marketing:
Email marketing is the highly effective digital marketing strategy of sending
emails to prospects and customers. Effective marketing emails convert
prospects into customers, and turn one-time buyers into loyal, raving fans. To
succeed, your marketing emails should satisfy five core attributes. They must
be trustworthy, relevant, conversational, coordinated across channels, and
strategic. Email campaigns can be used to increase brand awareness,
generate traffic to other channels, promote products or services, or nurture
leads toward a purchase. Individualizes the content, both in the body and in
the subject line. States clearly what kind of emails the subscriber will get.
Offers a clear unsubscribe option. Integrates both transactional and
promotional emails. Email marketing is a proven, effective technique all on its
own: 89% of surveyed professionals named it as their most effective lead
generator.

3) Advantages of digital marketing:

Low cost:
Marketing and advertising cost is one of the biggest financial burdens that
businesses have to bear. While big businesses may not have so much trouble
doling out millions for marketing and advertisement, for small businesses, this
may be impossible or an unbearable nightmare. Marketing via digital platforms
offers a more affordable alternative to the traditional method.

Easy and convenient conversions:

Digital marketing lets your customers take action immediately after viewing
your ad or content. With traditional advertisements, the most immediate
result you can hope for is a phone call shortly after someone views your ad.
Digital advertising makes it easy since every interaction is tracked. You
instantly know how many people are viewing your ad and what actions they
take. if you have a website, then your customers are only ever a few clicks
away from making a purchase.

Target ideal customers:

Targeting people with traditional marketing methods is difficult. Generally,
your message goes to everyone in hopes of reaching people interested in your
business. It’s a challenge to obtain enough leads to justify your marketing

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costs. You can also target your audience with content and offers based on
what stage they’re at within the buying journey. For example, email marketing
can be used to nurture a lead until they’re ready to make a purchase. Social
media platforms usually possess a very smart algorithm that studies and
collates user preferences. Such that specific ad campaigns are shown only to
users with a specific inkling.

Brand development:
Brand development is a strategic process of creating and distinguishing your
company's image, products and services from your competitors. A well-
developed website, a blog featuring quality and useful articles, a social media
channel that is highly interactive are some of the ways by which a business
can build its brand. A great example of branding strategies is their “Think
Different” campaign. Apple's “Think Different” campaign is a great example of
a business developing their brand image from the inside out. By doing so they
have guaranteed customer loyalty and brand awareness in a way that not
many have.

Goal-Driven Marketing:
Marketing goal is the specific action you want your clients to take after seeing
your ads or social media posts. Additionally, goal-oriented marketing should
have a specific niche or target in mind and it should appeal directly to a very
specific target audience. Every online marketing campaign requires a goal and
set of sub goals to achieve and to allow benchmarking results. An essential
part of goal-driven marketing is the opportunity to learn, adjust, and keep
testing for new ways to improve results. It’s also necessary to keep in mind
that priory set goals can be wrong, and it’s crucial to keep updating goals
when it’s become clear the chosen targets are not providing the business what
it needs.

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4) Disadvantages of digital marketing:

Time consumption:
The time may be consumed on task such as optimizing and creating fresh and
unique content, proper setup of Social Media accounts in which the content is
going to be published, adopting or creating new strategies and choosing best
online advertising campaigns may consume your precious time. That’s why it is
important to measure your outcomes to ensure a return on investment.

Security and privacy issues:

There are a number of legal considerations around collecting and using customer
data for digital marketing purposes. Take care to comply with the rules regarding
privacy and data protection. Marketers must be aware of the security and privacy
threats to both their business and their customers. Each web platform or social
media site, a marketer uses can be a vector for vandals, fraudsters, and hackers.
The threats run the gamut of brand hijacking to stealing customer personal data.

Internet Marketing Campaigns Can Be Copied:

One of the dangers in Internet marketing is that a particular campaign can easily
be copied by a competitor, and many have done so with utter disregard for the
legal ramifications their actions may bring. Trademarks or logos can be used to
defraud customers and take away a sizeable market share from you. Not only
that, these can also be used for perpetrating negative and erroneous information
about your brand, product or service that will ruin your online reputation and lose
valuable targeted customers.

Lack of trust:
Problem of security and privacy is the issue of lack of trust on the part of
customers which has been recognized a great challenge on the way of online
marketing growth. Today despite the rapid growth of online transactions several
people still mistrust electronic methods of paying and still have doubt whether
the purchased items will be delivered or not.

High competition:
Digital marketing has a lot of competition. However, since this field is quite
creative in nature, the competition increases even further. As a digital marketer,
one of your chief goals will be to rank your page or website on Google and make
it come up on the first page.

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(Week 8) Lecture 15 & 16

Objectives: Learning objectives of this lecture are
 Number System
 Number Systems Conversion
 Computer Arithmetic
Text Book & Resources: Introduction to Computers 6th International Edition, Peter, N. McGraw-
Hill

Numbers System
The ways through which we express numerical information and their
different operations are called Number systems.

There are two types of number systems

 Positional Number System
 Non Positional Number System

Positional Number Systems:

These include those systems which have a specific value for a fix number of
entities and their position in a series tells us their exact values, these symbols
include 1,2,3,4,5,0.

Non Positional Number Systems:

These include those systems which don't have specific symbols or their
definite values for a fixed number of entities and their values are regardless
of their position, they were used in olden times. Roman Number System
(I,II,III)

Base value:
Total number of digits in a system is called its base.
The positional number system has the following types:

 Decimal Number system.

 Binary Number system.
 Octal Number system.
 Hexadecimal Number system.

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Decimal Number system:

The number system with base 10 is called decimal number system, we use
this in our daily lives, Values range from 0 to 9, and the largest value is always
less than the base value.

Binary Number system:

The number system with base 2 is called binary number system, it is used in
digital electronics values consist of 0&1, and the largest value is always
smaller than the base value.

Octal Number system:

The number system with base 8 is called octal system, it is used in some
places where special care is needed, its values consist of values ranging from
0 to 7 and the largest value is smaller than the base value.

Hexadecimal number system:

This number system has a base value of 16 , it is used in some digital
electronics, its values go from 0 to 9,A,B,C,D,E,F where
A=10,B=11,C=12,D=13,E=14,F=15.

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Binary Table

8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3
0 1 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 5
0 1 1 0 6
0 1 1 1 7
1 0 0 0 8
1 0 0 1 9
1 0 1 0 10-A
1 0 1 1 11-B
1 1 0 0 12-C
1 1 0 1 13-D
1 1 1 0 14-E
1 1 1 1 15-F

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Conversion of Number Systems

Binary to Other Numbers System

Binary to Octal:
The following steps are used in this method:
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right)
Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit. Since
there are 8 digits (0 to 7) in octal number system. 3 bits (2 3 = 8) are sufficient
to represent any octal number in binary.

Example:
(101110)2= (?)8
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3.
101 110.
Step 2: Convert each group into one digit of octal.
101= 58

110 = 68

Hence, (101110)2 = (56)8

Binary to Decimal:
Converting (10101)2 to decimal number system.
Step 1:
Assign numbers to each digit starting from zero (0). From left to right.
(1403120110).
Step 2:
(1*24)+(0*23)+(1*22)+(0*21)+(1*20)
16+0+4+0+1
(21)10

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Binary to Hexadecimal:
The following steps are used in this method:
Step 1: Divide binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right)
Step 2: Convert each group of four digits to one hexadecimal digit.

Example:
(11010011)2 = (?)16
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into group of 4.
1101 0011
Step 2: Convert each group of 4 binary digits to 1 hexadecimal digit.
11012 = 1316 = D16
00112 = 316 = 316
Hence, (11010011)2 = (D3)16

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Octal to Other Numbers System

Octal to Binary:
Opposite of Binary to octal conversion.
Example:
(562)8 = (?)2
58 = 1012
68 = 1102
28 = 0102
Hence, (562)8 = (101110010)2

Octal To Decimal:
Converting (134)8 to decimal number system.
Replace 2 by 8 and rest of the process is same as above.
(1*82)+(3*81)+(4*80)

64+24+4

(92)10

Octal To Hexadecimal:
There are two ways to convert:
 Convert octal to decimal and then decimal to hexadecimal.
 Convert octal to binary and then binary to hexadecimal.

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Decimal to Other Numbers System

Decimal to Binary:
When converting from decimal to binary the mathematical way is simplest.
Start with the decimal number you want to convert and start dividing that
number by two, keeping track of the remainder after each complete division
very time you divide by two, you will divide evenly (0) or get a remainder of
one (1). Following the pattern to the end, you will get a binary number. Write
the remainders in the order they were generated from right to left and the
result is equivalent binary value.
Example: Convert decimal 44 to binary
1. Divide

44 / 2 = 22 remainder = 0

22 / 2 = 11 remainder = 0

11 / 2 = 5 remainder = 1

5/2=2 remainder = 1

2/2=1 remainder = 0

1/2=0 remainder = 1

2. Reverse the order of remainders

The bits, in the order they were generated is 001101. Reversing the order
of bits we get 101101 which is our required answer.
(44)10 = (101100)2

Decimal to Octal:
Start with the decimal number you want to convert and start dividing that
number by 8, keeping track of the remainder after each complete division.
Rest of process is same like decimal to binary.

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Example: Convert 89 to Octal

89 / 8 = 11 remainder = 1
11 / 8 = 01 remainder = 3
01 / 8 = 00 remainder = 1
Now reversing the order we have (89)10 = (131)8

Decimal to Hexadecimal:
Start with the decimal number you want to convert and start dividing that
number by 16, keeping track of the remainder after each complete division.
Rest of process is same like decimal to binary conversion.
Example: Convert 47 to Hexadecimal
47 / 16 = 2 remainder = 15(F)
02 / 16 = 0 remainder = 2
Now reversing the order we have (47)10 = (2F)16

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Hexadecimal to Other Numbers System

Hexadecimal to Binary:
Opposite of binary to hexadecimal conversion.
Example:
(D3)16 = (?)2
D16 = 1316 = 11012
316 = 03 16 = 00112
Hence, (D3)16 = (11010011)2

Hexadecimal To Octal:
There are two ways to convert:
 Convert hexadecimal to decimal and then decimal to octal.
 Convert hexadecimal to binary and then binary to octal.

Hexadecimal to Decimal:
Converting (A2F) 16 to decimal number system.
Replace 2 by 16 and rest of the process is same as in binary to
decimal conversion.
As we know A = 10, F = 15.
= (A * 162) + (2 * 161) + (F * 160)
= (10 * 256) + (2 * 16) + (15 * 1)
= 2560 + 32 + 15
(2607)10

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Number System Conversion Rules

Now, we will see how to convert one number system to another number
system. There are three ways we can do it:

 Decimal to Other Number System

 Other number system to Decimal
 Any number system to any number system

Decimal to Other Number System:

Conversion rules for converting decimal to other number system

 First step is to identify the base of target number system i.e. number
system to which we have to convert the decimal number system.
 Second step is to divide the given decimal number system with that
base we got in the first step and note down the remainders in each
division.
 Third step is to reverse the remainder we got such that first value is LSB
and last value is MSB.

Decimal to Binary Number System:

Let us convert decimal number (13728)10 to binary number.

In example identified 2 is the base of the binary (target number system).

Then, we divided the given decimal number 13728 with the base 2. And then
we noted the remainder in every step. And finally, we reversed the remainder
and got the answer
(0101101000000)2.

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Decimal to Octal Number System

Let us take the same example and represent it into octal number system
format.

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Decimal to Hexadecimal Number System

Now for converting decimal to hexadecimal, we will take the base value as
16.

Convert Any Number System to Decimal Number System

Following are the steps to convert any number system to decimal number
system:

1. Identify the base of the given number system, which you have to
convert.
2. Now assign a position to all the digits in the number starting from the
right. i.e. Position of “8” in 5548 will be 0 and 4 will be 1 and so on…
3. Now multiply each digit of a given number with the Base power Position.
Let us see some examples to understand this more clearly.

Binary to Decimal Number System

In the above example, we first identified the base of Binary as 2. Then, we

assigned the position to each digit. Then we multiplied the digit with Base (2)
power Position (BpP). And then we add the answers we got from
multiplication.

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Octal to Decimal Number System

Hexadecimal to Decimal Number System

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Number System Relationship:

The following table depicts the relationship between decimal, binary, octal
and hexadecimal number systems.

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Some useful Conversions:

Video Link:

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLeby327DX1ciASlYqtY9jW9jDOyA5nko4

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Computer Arithmetic
Compliment of Binary Number:

1's complement:
The 1's complement of a number is found by changing all 1's to 0's and all 0's
to 1's. This is called as taking complement or 1's complement. Example of 1's
Complement is as follows:

2's complement:
The 2's complement of binary number is obtained by adding 1 to the Least
Significant Bit (LSB) of 1's complement of the number.
2's complement = 1's complement + 1

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Addition and Subtraction

Decimal:
The addition and subtraction of the other number system are similar to that
of the decimal number system. The only difference is that the decimal number
system consists the digit from 0-9 and their base is 10.

For understanding, the other number system addition first considers the
addition of two decimal numbers as shown below.

When we added the one’s column of the binary digit (i.e., 7+4) we get the
number which is greater than the base of the decimal number (the base of the
number is 10 and the sum of the digit is 11). Now add the tens column of the
binary digit whose sum is equal to 9, and hence less than the base. So there
is no carry in the ten’s column of the binary digit.

The solution of the above sum is explained below.

For understanding, the other number system Subtraction first considers the
subtraction of two decimal numbers as shown below.

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Binary:
Whenever we would like to sum two binary numbers, only we will have a carry
if the product is bigger than 1 because, in binary numbers, 1 is the highest
number. The binary addition rules are given in the following truth table of
subtraction.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is

written in the given column and a carry of 1 over to the next column.

In the above tabular form, the initial three equations are the same for the
binary digit number. The addition of binary numbers step by step is explained
in detail. For binary addition take an example of 11011 & 10101.

Here the step by step binary addition rules is explained below

1 + 1 => 1 0, so 0 with a carry 1

1 + 1 + 0 => 1 0. So 0 with carry 1
1+0+1 => 10 => 0. So 0 with carry-1
1+1+0 => 10 => 10 = 0 with carry-1
1+1+1=> 10+1 => 11= 1 with carry-1
1 +1 +1 = 11

Carefully note that 10 + 1 => 11 and this is equal to 2 + 1= 3.

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Examples

In subtraction, this is the primary technique. In this method, ensure that the
subtracting number must be from a larger number to smaller, or else this
technique won’t work appropriately.

If the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, then this method is used by
just switch their positions and memorize that the effect will be a -ve number.
The binary subtraction rules are given in the following truth table of
subtraction.

For example, in the binary subtraction, subtract the subtrahend from

minuend. Take an example of subtrahend (110112) and minuend (11011012).
For subtraction, arrange these two like the subtrahend should be below the
minuend. The example of this is given below.

1101101
– 11011
To get the same number of digits in subtrahend, add zero’s where it requires.

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In the above binary subtraction example, the subtraction was achieved from
the right side to the left side with the help of tabular form which is shown in
the above. Here the step-by-step binary subtraction rules is explained below.

 If the input 1 1 = 0, then borrow to the next step is 0.

 If the input 0 1 = 1 & borrow is 0. So 1 0 = 1 then borrow to the next

step is 1.

 If the input 1 0 = 0 & borrow is. So 1 1 = 0 then borrow to the next step
is 0.

 If the input 1 1 = 0 & borrow is 0. So 0 0 = 0 then borrow to the next

step is 0.

 If the input 0 1 = 1 & borrow is 0. So 1 0 = 1 then borrow to the next

step is 1.

 If the input 1 0 =1 & borrow is 1. So 1 1 = 0, then borrow to the next

step is 0.

 Final step, If the input 1 0 = 0 & borrow is 0. So 10 = 1, then borrow to

the next step is 0.

 So the final result will be 1010010

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Octal:
Following octal addition table will help you to handle octal addition.

To use this table, simply follow the directions used in this example: Add 6 8 and
58. Locate 6 in the A column then locate the 5 in the B column. The point in
'sum' area where these two columns intersect is the 'sum' of two numbers.

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Subtraction:
The subtraction of octal numbers follows the same rules as the subtraction of
numbers in any other number system. The only variation is in borrowed
number. In the decimal system, you borrow a group of 10 10. In the binary
system, you borrow a group of 210. In the octal system you borrow a group of
810.

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Hexadecimal:
Following are the characteristics of a hexadecimal number system.
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12,
D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system.

Following hexadecimal addition table will help you greatly to handle

Hexadecimal addition.

To use this table, simply follow the directions used in this example − Add
A16 and 516. Locate A in the X column then locate the 5 in the Y column. The
point in 'sum' area where these two columns intersect is the sum of two
numbers.
A16 + 516 = F16.

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Subtraction:
The subtraction of hexadecimal numbers follow the same rules as the
subtraction of numbers in any other number system. The only variation is in
borrowed number. In the decimal system, you borrow a group of 10 10. In the
binary system, you borrow a group of 210. In the hexadecimal system you
borrow a group of 1610.

Video Link:

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLeby327DX1cgYDReXIxJ9RBKmDiitONUT

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