COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN ......................................................... 4
1.1 Definition of Computer Aided Design ............................................................................. 4
1.2 CAD Drafting vs Manual Drafting................................................................................... 4
1.3 Computer-aided design application areas ........................................................................ 5
1.4 CAD software ................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Benefits of Computer Aided Design ................................................................................ 6
1.6 Limitations Of CAD ......................................................................................................... 7
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF TECHNICAL DRAWING .............................................................. 8
2.1 Definition of Technical drawing/drafting ........................................................................ 8
2.2 Technical drawing Manual Drafting (Paper) instruments ................................................ 8
2.3 Types Manual Technical Drawing Lines and their Application Areas .......................... 15
2.4 Examples of application areas of technical drawing lines ............................................. 17
2.5 Examples of Parts of Products Drawn using Various Manual Technical Drawing Lines
19
3 AutoCAD ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................ 20
3.1 AutoCAD User Interface ................................................................................................ 20
3.2 AutoCAD User Interface Features ................................................................................. 21
3.3 AutoCAD User Interface Option Buttons ...................................................................... 27
3.4 Designing models on autoCAD...................................................................................... 32
3.4.1 Use of the Mouse .................................................................................................... 32
3.4.2 Special key functions .............................................................................................. 32
3.5 AutoCAD Coordinate System ........................................................................................ 35
3.5.1 Cartesian coordinate system ................................................................................... 35
3.5.2 World Coordinate System (WCS) .......................................................................... 36
3.5.3 User Coordinate System(UCS) ............................................................................... 36
3.5.4 Absolute Coordinates (ACS) .................................................................................. 40
3.5.5 Relative Coordinates(RCS) ..................................................................................... 43
3.5.6 Polar Coordinates(PCS) .......................................................................................... 44
3.5.7 Example of a Sketch Diagram using the various coordinates................................. 49

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 3.6 Drawing plane geometry figures in 2-D ......................................................................... 51
3.6.1 Drawing a LINE ...................................................................................................... 51
3.6.2 Drawing a POLYLINE ........................................................................................... 51
3.6.3 Drawing CIRCLES: ................................................................................................ 52
3.6.4 Drawing ARCS ....................................................................................................... 54
3.6.5 Drawing a RECTANGLE (rec) .............................................................................. 57
3.6.6 Drawing a POLYGON ............................................................................................ 58
3.6.7 Drawing a SPLINE ................................................................................................. 58
3.6.8 Drawing an ELLIPSE ............................................................................................. 59
3.6.9 Hatching .................................................................................................................. 59
3.7 Modifying commands in AutoCAD ............................................................................... 64
3.8 Annotation ...................................................................................................................... 76
3.9 Dimensioning ................................................................................................................. 77
3.10 Techniques of Dimensioning Models ............................................................................ 81
3.10.1 Linear Dimensioning .............................................................................................. 81
3.10.2 Aligned dimensioning ............................................................................................. 82
3.10.3 Diameter Dimensioning .......................................................................................... 82
3.10.4 Radius Dimensioning .............................................................................................. 82
3.10.5 Angular Dimensioning ............................................................................................ 83
3.10.6 Reference dimensioning.......................................................................................... 83
3.10.7 Ordinate Dimensioning ........................................................................................... 83
3.10.8 Baseline Dimensioning ........................................................................................... 84
3.10.9 Arc length dimensioning. ........................................................................................ 85
3.11 Multileader ..................................................................................................................... 86
3.12 Tolerances ...................................................................................................................... 87
3.13 Layers ............................................................................................................................. 87
3.13.1 Layer property manager .......................................................................................... 88
3.13.2 Layer Controls ........................................................................................................ 91
3.13.3 Layer Settings ......................................................................................................... 93
3.13.4 Controls in the Layer Properties Manager .............................................................. 93
3.13.5 Quick Access to Layer Settings .............................................................................. 93

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 3.14 Examples of Technical Drawing Lines on AutoCAD application ................................. 94
3.15 Symbols and Abbreviations in Technical Drawing........................................................ 96
3.16 Perspective Projection .................................................................................................... 99
3.17 Parallel Projection ........................................................................................................ 100
3.17.1 Orthographic projection ........................................................................................ 101
3.17.2 Isometric Projection .............................................................................................. 117
3.17.3 Oblique projection ................................................................................................ 128
3.18 Isometric drawing on AutoCAD .................................................................................. 129
3.18.1 Isometric planes .................................................................................................... 129
3.18.2 Isometric Circles, Arcs, and Fillets ....................................................................... 131
3.18.3 Placing your Dimensions and Text on Isometric drawings .................................. 132
3.18.4 Setting Up the Dimension Styles in Isometric Drawings ..................................... 134
3.19 AutoCAD Blocks ......................................................................................................... 136
3.19.1 Benefits of Blocks ................................................................................................. 136
3.19.2 Usage of CAD blocks ........................................................................................... 137
3.19.3 Block Attributes .................................................................................................... 143
4 SAMPLE EXERCISES ....................................................................................................... 146

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1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
1.1 Definition of Computer Aided Design
Computer-aided design (CAD) refers to the use of computer systems to aid in the creation,
modification, analysis, or optimization of designs for structures, products or parts(computer parts,
motor vehicle parts, manufacturing equipment parts, electrical and mechanical engineering parts,
aircraft parts etc.

Computer-aided design (CAD) can also be defined as the use of computer based tools to aid in
designing, drafting and modeling parts, products or structures.

Idea or Design/Model/Technical Physical/real

Concept drawing part/product/structure

1.2 CAD Drafting vs Manual Drafting

Computer-aided design (CAD) drafting is the practice of creating models/drawings using computer
aided design applications/software
CAD (computer-aided design) applications are used by architects, engineers, drafters and
professional designers to create precision drawings or technical illustrations. In addition to the
software, CAD systems require a high-quality graphics monitor, a mouse, a keyboard, and a special
printer or plotter for printing the designs
Manual drafting is the practice of creating models/drawings using technical drawing instruments
on paper by hand. Manual drafting techniques have traditionally enabled the planning and
communication of design ideas and construction information. The evolution of manual drafting
techniques has created a discipline around which other forms of drafting, such as computer-aided
design (CAD) have subsequently developed.
Manual drafting is now becoming something of a lost art, as it requires a large amount of space,
both for the drawing process, storage and viewing; drawings cannot be linked
to digital information.
Example: 2D/3D CAD drawings

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1.3 Computer-aided design application areas
a. Automotive design-parts of automotives such as crank shaft,gears,engines etc. for
vehicles, trains can be designed using CAD application
b. Designing electronic systems-motherboards for computers,TVs,Radios etc. can be
designed using a CAD application
c. Aerospace industries-aircraft parts(fuselage,wings,landing gear, bulkheads etc.),radar
equipment, airport designs can be developed using CAD
d. Industrial and architectural design-buildings, plants structural design can be designed with
CAD software such as ArchiCAD or REVIT
e. Prosthetics design-artificial arms, legs, implants can be designed using CAD based on the
size of the body of person who is in need.
f. Textile Industry(textile designs )-shirts,blouses,trousers etc. are designed using CAD
application
g. Mechanical design-conveyor belts,lathes,excavators,plant/factory machinery are designed
using CAD applications
h. Ships design-ships parts such as decks, starboards, propellers etc. are designed using CAD
software.
i. Computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals
among others.
1.4 CAD Software/Applications
Commercial
a. Autodesk AutoCAD p. Archimedes
b. Autodesk ArchiCAD q. AllyCAD
c. Autodesk Revit r. Microstation among others
d. Autodesk Fusion Freeware and open source
e. Autodesk Inventor a. 123D
f. TurboCAD b. LibreCAD
g. IronCAD c. BRL-CAD
h. MEDUSA d. OpenSCAD
i. ProgeCAD e. NanoCAD
j. SpaceClaim f. TeleCAD-GIS
k. Rhinoceros 3D g. ProE PTC
l. VariCAD h. CATIA
m. VectorWorks i. IntelliCAD
n. I-DEAS j. QCad among others
o. Solidworks
CAD software can be used to create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D)
models

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1.5 Benefits of Computer Aided Design
a. Drawing to Scale
CAD applications contains inbuilt scales e.g. 1:1,1:2,1:3 etc. that can be adopted by
drafter/designer consistently when creating the models .With manual drafting, you must
determine the scale of a view before you start drawing. This scale compares the size of the
actual object to the size of the model drawn on paper.
b. Time saving
It takes a much shorter time to create products as compared to traditional techniques.
c. Reduction mistakes during model design:
Some mistakes that may otherwise cost a lot of money are avoided when CAD is used.
d. Improved Quality
The overall quality of the final product is considerably higher than that of one produced
without CAD.
e. Adoption of established drafting standards
With CAD, a designer can ensure conformity to industry or company standards by creating
styles that you can apply consistently. You can create styles for text, dimensions, and line-
type while in manual drafting requires meticulous accuracy in drawing line-types, line-
weights, text, dimensions, and more. Standards must be established in the beginning and
applied consistently.
f. Use of associative dimensions and text
With CAD, you create associative dimensions and text on the layout in paper space.
Associative dimensions are tied to the underlying model. Changes to the model
automatically update the dimension values. Standard types of dimensions include linear,
radial, ordinate, angular, baseline, and more. You can easily revise the content, font, size,
spacing, and rotation of text in dimensions and note
With manual drafting, if you resize any part of the drawing, you must erase and then redraw
the dimensions. Changing text can often involve re-lettering the whole drawing.
g. Modification of Drawings
Revisions are a part of any drawing project. Whether you work on paper or with CAD, you
will need to modify your drawing in some way, a user can save and edit ideas, which
makes it easier and cheaper to modify your design as you go along, on paper, you must
erase and redraw to make revisions to your drawing manually.
CAD eliminates tedious manual editing by providing a variety of editing tools. If you need
to copy all or part of an object, you don’t have to redraw it. If you need to remove an object,
you can erase it with a few clicks of the mouse. And if you make an error, you can quickly
undo your actions. Once you draw an object, you never need to redraw it. You can modify
existing objects by mirroring, rotating, scaling, stretching, trimming, and more. You can
also change object properties, such as linetype, lineweight, color, and layer, at any time.
h. Saving for future reference
Documentation can be printed in various forms for multiple users

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 i. Can be more accurate than hand-drawn designs
Models are drafted using CAD applications hence reducing human error which is more
prevalent in manual drafting.
j. Drawing Models efficiently
In CAD, you can choose from a variety of drawing tools that create lines, circles, splines
arcs, and more. You can easily move, copy, offset, rotate, and mirror objects,you can also
copy objects between open drawings while with manual drafting, you use drawing tools
that include pencils, scales, compasses, parallel rules, templates, and erasers. Repetitive
drawing and editing tasks must be done manually.
k. Ease of laying out drawings
When you draft manually, you first select a sheet, which usually includes a pre-printed
border and title block. Then you determine the location for views' plans, elevations,
sections, and details. Finally, you start to draw. With CAD, you first draw your design, or
model, in a working environment called model space. You can then create a layout for that
model in an environment called paper space.
l. Adoption of templates
A drawing template file is a drawing file that has been saved with a .dwt file extension, and
it specifies the styles, settings, and layouts in a drawing, including title blocks. The default
drawing template files are provided as samples, it helps user to easily create a future
drawing without initial settings. Using templates reduces work time, reduces the chance to
make mistakes in settings and makes uniformity to every work in a single project. Using
drawing templates helps you quickly start new drawings that conform to standards. Most
CAD businesses use a company-wide template that is updated from time to time

1.6 Limitations Of CAD

a. Costly start up: when initially starting, factors like hardware, software and location may be
required which translates into high expenses.
b. Training: before proper operation, elaborate training may be required in order to ensure
better product quality, Staff need to be trained how to use the software, which also adds to
costs
c. The software itself can be expensive so initial costs are high.

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2 FUNDAMENTALS OF TECHNICAL DRAWING
2.1 Definition of Technical drawing/drafting
Technical drawing is the process of producing a pictorial representation of a designer or engineer's
vision into a physical form. Technical drawings serve as a guide or plan to the construction of
whatever is represented in the drawing.
Technical drawing or drafting is the practice or skill of producing drawings/models that visually
communicate how something functions/works or is constructed.
Technical drawing is used in many professions (engineering, architecture, manufacturing,
construction, estate management, etc.) to draw or draft ideas and different views of physical objects
like drainages, culverts, septic tanks, incinerators, houses, etc.
Technical drawing produces a drawing or plan, rendered to scale, that is used to communicate
direction and specifics to a group of people who are creating something to explain how something
works or how to build something.
Technical drawings are constructed on the basis of fundamental principles of projection. There are
two main types of technical drawing or projection: parallel projection, and perspective
projection
Technical drawings which are produced by hand are considered "manually drafted", the process
of producing technical drawings with the use of specially designed software is called "computer
aided design/drafting. Manual Drafting is technical drawing done manually with rulers, T-squares,
stencils, triangles, large paper, a large work space and much more. CAD Drafting is technical
drawing done with computer software such as AutoCAD or Corel DRAW.
etc
2.2 Technical drawing Manual Drafting (Paper) instruments
a. Compasses g. Lettering Guides/Templates.
b. Rulers h. Pens.
c. Set Squares i. T-square.
d. Drawing Ink j. French Curves
e. Drawing/Drafting Boards k. Protractors
f. Technical Pens
The basic manual technical drawing procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on
a drawing board, a sliding T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across
the side of the board and over the surface of the paper.

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Uses of Technical Drawing Instruments/Materials
a) Pencil: The grade of pencil to be used for various purposes depends on the type of line
desired.
Pencil is used to draw on the paper. Any type of pencil is not suitable for drawing. There are some
limitations, the drawing appearance should be very neat and understandable. Every line of the
drawing should indicate its importance. It depends upon the hardness of pencil. Based on the
hardness quality pencils are classified into 18 grades and they are

Grade of Pencil Hardness of Pencil

9H Hardest
6H, 5H, 4H Extremely Hard
3H Very hard
2H Hard
H Moderately hard
F Firm
HB Medium hard
B Moderately soft and black
2B Soft and black
3B Very soft and black
4B, 5B, 6B Very soft and very black
7B Softest
Out of the above 18 grades of pencils, following grades are used in engineering drawings.

Grade of Pencil Used to Draw

3H Construction lines
2H Dimension lines, center lines, sectional lines, hidden lines
H Object lines, lettering
HB Dimensioning, boundary lines

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  6H is used for light construction line.
 4H is used for re-penciling light finished lines (dimension lines, center
lines, and invisible object lines)
 2H is used for visible object lines
 F and H are used for all lettering and freehand work.

b) Drawing Sheet
Drawing sheet is a white paper on which an object is drawn which is available in various sizes. The
sheet used for engineering should be of good quality. It should be white in color with uniform
thickness with must resist the easy torn of paper. The surface of sheet must be smooth. Various sizes
of drawing sheets recommended by Indian standards are listed below.

Drawing Sheet Type Dimensions (Length X Width) (mm)

A0 841 X 1189
A1 594 X 841
A2 420 X 594
A3 297 X 420
A4 210 X 297
A5 148 X 210

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 Sample Drawing Sheet
c) Drawing board: Parallel rulers on each side of the drawing surface align the drawing paper
and provide horizontal and vertical guides for drawing.
Drawing board is generally made of soft wood and it is in rectangular shape. It is used to support
drawing sheet, so, the size of board is made according the size of the drawing sheet. The wood
portions are joined by tongue and grove type joint to prevent cracks. At the edge of board, straight
ebony edge is provided for the T-square usage. Different types of drawing boards and their sizes
according to IS classification are listed below.

Type of Drawing Board Length X Width X Thickness (mm)

D0 1500 X 1000 X 25
D1 1000 X 700 X 25
D2 700 X 500 X 15
D3 500 X 350 X 15

d) Set Squares: They are used to construct the common angles e.g. 45⁰, 60⁰ and 30⁰
e) French Curves: These are used for drawing irregular curves that are not arcs.
f) T Square: It used to draw horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles when drawing
vertical and inclined lines.

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g) Protractor: It is used for measuring and laying out angles
h) Ruler is used for measuring drawing lengths.
i) Compass is used to draw circles and arcs and a
j) Divider is used for transferring measurements
k) Drawing ink is a widely used technique employed by professionals and artists. Technical pens
have stable tips thanks to modern chrome-plated tubes, making them an excellent tool for
architects and draftsmen
l) Eraser: This is used to clean up any mistakes made while drawing or working on drawing sheet
or paper
m) Technical Pencil – Used to sketch a final draft, this pencil is capable of drawing the finest line
possible from the smallest pin calibration
n) Paper holders- When the drawing sheet is put on the drawing board it may not be fixed in
position so that this paper holder or clips are used for putting the sheet in place.
Commonly the paper holders are clips, spring clips, stick tape, thumb pins, etc, but care should
be taken while removing the stick tap or clips otherwise the drawing sheet may damage.
o) Sharpener-used for sharpening the pencil worn and makes the surface worn pointed and
smooth, the sharpener is important as it is a pencil, and erasers are used for making a drawing
p) Clinograph is an instrument used to draw parallel lines to the inclined lines
q) Drawing Templates-non-dimensional shapes or variety font letters are drawn by using
templates which makes drawing easier and perfect.
r) Lettering guides template is a special type of template used to write uniform characters. It
consists of a sheet of plastic or other material with cut-outs of letters, numbers, and other shapes
used especially for creating technical drawings.

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2.3 Technical Drawing Lines Types and their Application Areas

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2.4 Examples of application areas of technical drawing lines

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2.5 Examples of Parts of Products Drawn using Various Technical Drawing Line Types

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3 AutoCAD ENVIRONMENT
Learning to use a CAD system is similar to learning a new language. It is necessary to begin with
the basic alphabet and learn how to use it correctly and effectively through practice. This will
require learning some new concepts and skills as well as learning different vocabulary.
All CAD systems create designs using basic geometric entities and many of the constructions used
in technical designs are based upon two-dimensional planar geometry moreover the majority of
the Mechanical CAD systems are capable of creating three-dimensional solid models.
In learning to use a CAD system, lines and circles are the first two, and perhaps the most important
two, geometric entities that one should master the skills of creating and modifying. Straight lines
and circles are used in almost all technical designs.
Triangles and polygons are planar figures bounded by straight lines. Ellipses and splines can be
constructed by connecting arcs with different radii. As one gains some experience in creating lines
and circles, similar procedures can be applied to create other geometric entities.

3.1 AutoCAD User Interface

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3.2 AutoCAD User Interface Features
1. Title bar-Application menu, Quick Access Toolbar, Active drawing
environment(drafting & annotation,3D Basics,3D Modelling),File name of the drawing,
search button,Signin to Autodesk 360 cloud
2. Ribbon-menus,pallettes and toolbars
3. Drawing window-view port controls, visual styles, navigation bar, drawing area,UCS
icon,command window
4. Status bar-Active drawing space (Model space,Template,Paper space-
layout),coordinates, option buttons, customization.
1. Title bar-main option button, Quick Access Toolbar, workspaces, title/name of drawing &
search button

2. Ribbon-at the topmost section of the AutoCAD software is a section of command tabs called the
Ribbon. A multitude of options such as menus, palletes, toolbars are found behind each tab of the

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3. Drawing Window-The large area in the center of the screen. This is where you will draw. This
area represents a piece of paper. The color of this area can be changed using Tools / Option /
Display / Color. The default color for 2015 is black.

4. Cursor/Cross hairs

Used for drawing, pointing, selecting (highlighting), scrolling, zooming, panning of objects.
The movement of the cursor is controlled by the movement of the pointing device such as a mouse.
You will use the cursor to locate points, make selections and draw objects. The default size is 5%.
The size of the crosshairs can be changed using Tools / Options / Display / Crosshair Size.
This dialog box also sets the colors for the application interface.
3. Type OPTIONS at the command prompt.
4. Command: OPTIONS
5. Click the Display tab.
6. Click Light as the color scheme.
7. Drag the slider bar in under Crosshair size to set the cursor size.
8. Click the Colors button under Window Elements to change software interface colors

5.The Command Window-At the heart of AutoCAD is the Command window, which is normally
docked at the bottom of the application window. The Command window displays prompts,
options, and messages. You can enter commands directly in the Command window instead of
using the ribbon, toolbars, and menus. Many long-time AutoCAD users prefer this method.

Notice that as you start to type a command, it is completed automatically. When several
possibilities are available such as in the example below, you can make your choice by clicking it
or using the arrow keys and then pressing Enter or the Spacebar.

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Typing a Command
All AutoCAD commands can be typed in at the command line. Many commands also have one or
two letter aliases that can also be typed as shortcuts to the commands.
1. Type the desired command at the command prompt.
Command: LINE
2. Press ENTER/Space to end.
3. Type an option at the command prompt.
TIP: Many AutoCAD commands require you to press ENTER to complete the command. You
know you are no longer in an AutoCAD command when you see a blank command line.
Reissuing the Last Command
1. Right Click the mouse button.
2.Select the command to REPEAT
3.Press the ENTER key on the keyboard

7. Workspaces are sets of menus, toolbars, palettes, and ribbon control panels that are grouped
and organized so that you can work in a custom, task-oriented drawing environment. The
Workspace Drafting & Annotation provides several Ribbon panels and tabs containing common
features needed for 2D drawings. The Workspace named 3D Modeling provides Ribbon-based 3D-
related features. Both of these are good starting points. You can then refine the Ribbon a bit more,
then save it as another Workspace

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The AutoCAD has three workspaces.
1. 2D Drafting and annotation workspace
2. 3D Modeling workspace
3. 3D Basics workspace
The 2D and 3D drawings are created on the given screen. The display contains all the tools and
icons which make the process to create any drawing. There are particular shortcuts for icons.
The drafting is a technology for the design, which replaced the manual drafting with the automated
process. Some of the icons are different on the 3D display than the 2D display.
The icons of AutoCAD are present on the Ribbon Panel and the Status bar.

The display of AutoCAD 2D is shown in the image below:

The AutoCAD 3D has two 3D displays.

3D Modeling
3D Basics
The 3D Modeling includes some advance icons, while 3D Basics includes basic icons.
The display of AutoCAD 3D Modeling is shown in the image below:

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 3D Modeling Workspace
The display of AutoCAD 3D Basic is shown in the image below:
3D Basic Workspace

9. Status bar
Displays your current settings of your drawing.

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10. Model Space Model space is limitless 2D/3D drawing area where the designer draw
objects/models /designs at their true size at 1:1 scale i.e. one unit represents one millimeter, one
centimeter, one inch, one foot
11. Layout (Paper Space)-displays one or more scaled views of your design on a standard-size
drawing sheet called a layout. After you finish creating a model at full size, you can switch to a
paper space layout to create scaled views of the model, and to add notes, labels, and dimensions.
You can also specify different line types and line widths for display in paper space.

layout is a paper space environment in which you can set up drawings for plotting .Paper space is
used to prepare the drawing for printing, the designer can set up different layouts with title blocks
and notes; and on each layout, he can create layout viewports that display different views of model
space, one unit in paper space represents the actual distance on a sheet of paper, either in
millimeters or inches i.e. objects/models/designs are drawn at their true size that represents scaled
plot on a piece of paper.

Originally, Model space was the only space available in AutoCAD, all notes, labels, dimensions,
and the drawing border and title block were also created and scaled in model space. After paper
space was introduced, you could click a layout tab to access a space designed specifically for
layouts and scaling. In the following illustration, paper space is active. There are currently only
two objects in paper space: a drawing border block, and a single layout viewport, which displays
a view of model space.

9. Viewport-rectangular area or hole on AutoCAD through which you view your model/design
Viewports are a special bounded area on a layout used to display model geometry on a layout.
Viewports allow you to display different areas of your design at different scales.

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9. Option Buttons these are options and Drafting Settings that a designer can put ON or OFF to
aid in the accurate and efficient drawing of models/designs

Customization
3.3 AutoCAD User Interface Option Buttons
a. Snap Mode

The SNAP option controls an invisible rectangular grid that restricts cursor
movement to specified intervals. When SNAP mode is on, the screen cursor and all input
coordinates are snapped to the nearest point on the grid. The default snap interval is 0.5 inches,
and aligned to the grid points on the screen.
Function Key F9 to turn the snap ON/OFF.
Snap and Grid Style Setup
1. In the Status Bar area, under the snap mode and choose [snap settings]
2. In the Drafting Settings dialog box, select the Snap and Grid tab if it is not the page on top.
3. Change Grid Style to Display dotted grid in 2D model Space as shown in the below figure.
4. Pick OK to exit the Drafting Settings dialog box

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b. Grid Display
The GRID option creates a pattern of lines/dots that extends over an area on the screen.
Using the grid is similar to placing a sheet of grid paper under a drawing. The grid helps you align
objects and visualize the distance between them. The grid is not displayed in the plotted drawing.
The default grid spacing, which means the distance in between two lines on the screen, is 5 inches.

Function Key F7 to turn the grid ON/OFF.

c. Dynamic Input
Dynamic Input provides a command interface near the cursor to help you keep your focus in the
drafting area. When Dynamic Input is ON, tooltips display information near the cursor that is
dynamically updated as the cursor moves. When a command is active, the tooltips provide a place
for user entry.
Turning Dynamic Input ON/OFF
Click the Dynamic Input icon on the status bar or press F12

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d. Ortho Mode: When Ortho is ON,it restricts cursor movements to horizontal and vertical
directions. When Ortho is OFF, the cursor moves freely. Click the Orthomode Input icon on the
status bar or press F8

e.Polar Tracking:
When you need to specify a point, such as when you create a line, you can use polar tracking to
guide the movement of your cursor in certain directions. By default, polar tracking is turned on
and guides your cursor in a horizontal or vertical direction.

f.ObjectSnaps (Osnap)
By far, the most important way for you to specify precise locations on objects is to use object
snaps. In the following illustration, several different kinds of object snaps are represented by
markers
Object snaps become available during a command whenever AutoCAD prompts you to specify a
point. For example, if you start a new line and move your cursor near the endpoint of an existing
line, the cursor will automatically snap to it.
Set Default Object Snaps

Enter the OSNAP command to set the default object snaps, which are also called "running" object
snaps. For example, you might find it useful to turn on the Midpoint object snap by default.

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g. Object Snap Tracking (OTRACK)
Object Snap Tracking (OTRACK) works with OSNAP and POLAR to help align new points with
existing locations in your drawing. For instance, OTRACK makes it easy to draw a new rectangle
in line with an existing one or draw a circle to align vertically with the midpoint of a line and
horizontally with an intersection.

H.Show/Hide Line weight

Turns on/off the line width on display. It does not affect the line widths on plot

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i. Isodraft
ISODRAFT allows users to easily draw at a 30 degree angle as needed for an isometric drawing.
You can switch between the three 'isoplanes' (top, right, left) by using this command or by pressing
the F5 key.
The Isoplane option on the Properties palette restricts cursor movement to appropriate rotated
angles along isometric planes. You can work on one of 3 isometric planes, each with an associated
pair of axes:
• Isoplane Left. Aligns symbols and lines along 90-degree and 150-degree axes.
• Isoplane Top. Aligns symbols and lines along 30-degree and 150-degree axes.
• Isoplane Right. Aligns symbols and lines along 30-degree and 90-degree axes.

Functions of Keyboard Keys on AutoCAD

Key Feature Description
F1 Help Displays Help for the active tooltip, command, palette or dialog
box.
F2 Expanded history Displays an expanded command history in the Command
window.
F3 Object snap Turns object snap on and off.
F4 3D object snap Turns additional object snaps for 3D on and off.
F5 Isoplane Cycles through 2D isoplane settings.
F6 Dynamic UCS (AutoCAD only) Turns automatic UCS alignment with planar surfaces on and off.
F7 Grid display Turns the grid display on and off.
F8 Ortho Locks cursor movement to horizontal or vertical.
F9 Grid snap Restricts cursor movement to specified grid intervals.
F10 Polar tracking Guides cursor movement to specified angles.
F11 Object snap tracking Tracks the cursor horizontally and vertically from object snap
locations.
F12 Dynamic input Displays distances and angles near the cursor and accepts input
as you use Tab
Note: F8 and F10 are mutually exclusive—turning between
either one on fields.
will turn the other one off.

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3.4 Designing models on autoCAD
3.4.1 Use of the Mouse

Most people use a mouse as their pointing device, but other devices have equivalent controls

Tip: When you look for an option, try right-clicking. Depending on where you locate your cursor,
different menus will display relevant commands and options

3.4.2 Special key functions

Escape Key Cancels the current command, menu or Dialog Box.

Enter Key Ends a command, or will repeat the previous command if the
command line is blank.
Space Bar Same as the Enter Key, except when entering text.
Setting up Drawing Units
Every object we construct in a CAD system is measured in units. We should
determine the system of units within the CAD system before creating the any geometric entities.
In the Menu Bar select:
[Format] [Units]
Setting up Drawing Area
Setting the Drawing Limits controls the extents of the display of the grid. It also serves as a visual
reference that marks the working area. It can also be used to prevent construction outside the grid
limits and as plot option that defines an area to be plotted/printed. Note that this setting does not
limit the region for geometry construction.
Determining drawing limits

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Drawing limits can be set according to the drawing requirements in either paper size A/B
/C/D etc. Table 1 shows the measurement units in metric and imperial (inches) for an A size.

In the Menu Bar select:

[Format] [Drawing Limits]
In the command prompt area, the message “Reset Model Space Limits: Specify lower left corner
or [On/Off]<0.00, 0.00>:” is displayed. Press the ENTER key once to accept the default
coordinates <0.00, 0.00>.Message displayed at the Command Prompt Area
-You will be prompt to specify the lower left coordinates:
In relation to the origin of the User Coordinate System (UCS)i.e. (0,0)
Press [Enter] to accept the default value of 0.0000,0.0000.
-AutoCAD will prompts for the upper right corner:
- In metric measurement, AutoCAD default paper size is at A3 size and the working area is in
landscape mode.
-To set the upper right corner limits for A4 metric:
Type: 297,210 and press [Enter]
-Notice the message displayed at the command prompt area
Select:
[View] [Zoom] [All]
The Zoom All command will adjust the display so that all objects in the drawing are displayed to
be as large as possible. If no objects are constructed, the Drawing Limits are used to adjust the
current viewport.
6. Move the graphic cursor near the upper-right comer inside the drawing area and note that the
display area is updated.
Hit the function key [F7] once to turn off the display of the Grid lines.
Note that function key [F7] is a quick key which can be used to quickly toggle on/off the grid
display.
ZOOM
Increases or decreases the size of objects in the current viewport
1. Choose View, Zoom.
or
2. Click a Zoom icon.
or
3. Type ZOOM at the command prompt.

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Command: Zoom or Z
4. Type One of the following zoom options:
The following are basic zoom options:.
Zoom Extents-Displays current drawing content(object) as large as possible.
Zoom Window- Designates rectangular area to be drawn as large as possible.(zooms to display
an area specified by a rectangular window)
Zoom Previous- Restores previous view.
Zoom Real time-zooms to increase or decrease the size of objects in the current viewport.
Zoom All-zooms to display all visible objects and visual aids.
Zoom Scale- Zooms to change the magnification of a view using a scale factor i.e. Magnification
relative to ZOOM All display Number X Magnification relative to current display (1X) Center
Specifies center point and new display height.
Zoom Dynamic –pan and zooms using a rectangular box i.e. Permits you to pan a box representing
the viewing screen around the entire generated portion of the drawing and enlarge or shrink it.
Zoom Center-zooms to display a view defined by a center point and a magnification value or a
height
Zoom object-zooms to display one or more selected objects as large as possible and in the center
of the view.
Zoom in-zooms to increase magnification of the current view by a factor of 2
Zoom out-zooms to decrease the magnification of the current view by a factor of 2.
Pan command enables us to move the view to a different position. The Pan-Realtime function acts
as if you are using a video camera

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3.5 AutoCAD Coordinate System
Coordinates are sets of points that aid in the creation of designs/models/drawings.
A CAD file, which is the electronic version of the design, contains data that describes the entities
created in the CAD system. Information such as the coordinate values in world space for all
endpoints, center points, etc., along with the descriptions of the types of entities/designs are all
stored in the file. Knowing that AutoCAD stores designs by keeping coordinate data helps us
understand the inputs required to create designs

3.5.1 Cartesian coordinate system

Cartesian coordinate system is a three dimensional coordinate system with three mutually
perpendicular axes, the X,Y & Z axes
In AutoCAD, the drawing Area is composed of a sheet in which every location has the
particularity of having its own coordinate represented by x, y and z.
Designs and drawings created in a CAD system are usually defined and stored using sets of points
in what is called work space. In most CAD systems, the work space is defined using a three-
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. Three mutually perpendicular axes, usually referred to
as the X-, Y-,and Z-axes, define this system. The intersection of the three coordinate axes forms a
point called the origin. Any point in world space can then be defined as the distance from the origin
in the X-, Y- and Z-directions. In most CAD systems, the directions of the arrows shown on the
axes identify the positive sides of the coordinates.
The icon near the bottom left corner of the default AutoCAD graphics window shows the positive
X-direction and positive Y-direction of the coordinate system that is active
AutoCAD provides the user with an infinite two dimensional area to work with. Any entities placed
on the working two dimensional plane can be defined relative to the Cartesian coordinate system.
The Cartesian coordinate system divides a two dimensional plane with two perpendicular axis.
The X axis runs horizontal across the bottom of the screen. The Y axis runs vertically along the
left side of the screen. These two axis intersect at the bottom left corner of the screen.
Each of these axis is further divided into segments. Each segment is given a value. The X axis
segments increase in value to the right. The positive X values are to the right of the intersection of
the two axis. The negative X values are to the left. The positive Y values are above the intersection

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and increase up. The negative Y values are below.

3.5.2 World Coordinate System (WCS)

World coordinate system is a cartesian coordinate system that’s states that there must be a fixed
point 0,0 that is linear to the X,Y& Z plane i.e. The intersection of the three coordinate axes(X,Y,Z)
forms a point called the origin. Any point in world space can then be defined as the distance from
the origin in the X-, Y- and Z-directions. World coordinate system is a coordinate system used
by AutoCAD as the basis for defining all objects and other coordinate systems defined by the
users. We can think of the origin of the world coordinate system as a fixed point being used as a
reference for all measurements. The default orientation of the Z-axis can be considered as positive
values in front of the monitor and negative values inside the monitor

3.5.3 User Coordinate System(UCS)

The User Coordinate System (UCS) is a movable coordinate system, which is a fundamental tool
both for 2D drawing and 3D modeling.
The UCS defines
 The XY plane, also called the work plane, on which objects are created and modified
 The horizontal and vertical directions used for features like Ortho mode, polar tracking,
and object snap tracking
 The alignment and angle of the grid, hatch patterns, text, and dimension objects
 The origin and orientation for coordinate entry and absolute reference angles
 For 3D operations, the orientation of work planes, projection planes, and the Z axis for
vertical direction and axis of rotation
You can change the location and orientation of the current UCS by clicking the UCS icon and
using its grips, or with the UCS command. Display options for the UCS icon are available with
the UCSICON command.

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UCS in 3D
When you create or modify objects in a 3D environment, you can move and reorient the UCS
anywhere in 3D space to simplify your work. The UCS is useful for entering coordinates,
creating 3D objects on 2D work planes, and rotating objects in 3D.
Note: The UCS icon follows the traditional right-hand rule in determining positive axis
directions and rotation directions.

The UCS in Paper Space

You can move and rotate the UCS in paper space on a layout; however, the UCS in paper space
is restricted to 2D operations.. You can change the UCS origin and orientation for convenience
as you specify points, enter coordinates and work with drawing aids, such as ortho mode and the
grid.
User Coordinate System is most used in the 3D basics and 3D modeling workspaces when
designing 3D models that have the X,Y and Z planes

Note: By default, the User Coordinates panel is hidden in the Drafting & Annotation workspace.
To display the User Coordinates panel, click the View tab, then right-click and choose Show
Panels, and then click Coordinates. In 3D workspaces (not available in AutoCAD LT), the
Coordinates panel is on the Home tab.
The User Coordinate System(UCS) Icon
The UCS icon indicates the location and orientation of the current user coordinate system , the
UCS icon is normally displayed at the lower left corner of the viewport
The UCS icon is displayed in various ways to help us visualize the orientation of the drawing plane

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2D:the letter W appears in the Y portion of the icon if the UCS is coincident with the WCS ,if the
UCS is rotated so that the Z axis lies in a plane parallel to the viewing plane i.e. if the XY plane is
edge-on the viewer, the 2D UCS icon is replaced by a broken pencil icon.
3D:a square is displayed in the XY plane at the origin if the current UCS is coincident with the
WCS and you are viewing the UCS from above(the positive Z direction).The square is missing if
you are viewing the UCS from below. The Z axis is solid when viewed from above the XY plane
and dashed when viewed from below the XY plane.
Changing the UCS icon
1. Click on the UCS Icon
2. Right Click on the Icon; select UCS Icon settings
3. Click on properties
OR
1. Click on the View pull-down menu and select
[Display] [UCS Icon][Properties…]
1. In the UCS icon style section, switch to the 2D option as shown.
2. Click OK to accept the settings.

Note the W symbol in the UCS icon indicates the UCS is aligned to the world coordinate system

NB: In AutoCAD, the coordinate system that is used to create designs is called the user
coordinate system (UCS). By default, the user coordinate system is aligned to the world
coordinate system (WCS).

You can select, move, and rotate the UCS icon to change the current UCS. The UCS is useful in
2D, and essential in 3D.

You can control whether the UCS icon is visible, and change its appearance, with the UCSICON
command, Properties option.

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To Display the UCS Icon at the UCS Origin
Enter ucsicon at the Command prompt, and enter OR (Origin).
Note: If the location of the UCS origin is not displayed within the viewport, the UCS icon
displays in the lower-left corner of the viewport instead
To Move the UCS Origin Using the Origin Grip
 Click the UCS icon.
 Click and drag the square origin grip to its new location.
 The UCS origin (0,0,0) is redefined at the point that you specified.
Tip: To place the origin with precision, use object snaps or grid snaps, or enter specific X,Y,Z
coordinates.
To Rotate a View by Changing the UCS
1. Double-click within the viewport whose objects you want to rotate.
2. Make sure that the current UCS is parallel to the plane of rotation (the UCS icon should
look normal).
3. Click View tab Coordinates panel World.
4. Click View tab Coordinates panel Z.
5. To rotate the view 90 degrees clockwise, enter 90.
Or
1. Right-click the UCS icon, and click Rotate Axis. Click X, Y, or Z.
2. As you drag the cursor, the UCS rotates in the positive direction around the specified
axis. You can also specify a rotation angle.
Tip: Hover over the grips at the ends of the X, Y, and Z axes to access the rotate options
To Specify a New UCS Orientation With Three Points
1. Right-click the UCS icon, and click 3 Point
2. Specify a new origin point.
3. Specify a point on the new positive X axis.
4. Specify a point on the new XY plane
To Align the UCS With an Existing 3D Object
1. Click the UCS icon, and then click Move and Align.
2. Drag the UCS icon over the portion of the object with which you want to align it.
3. Click to place the new UCS
To Restore the Previous UCS
1. Right-click the UCS icon, and then click Previous

Assigning UCS Definitions to Viewports

To facilitate editing objects in different views, you can define a different user coordinate system
(UCS) for each view.
Each time you make a viewport current, you can use the same UCS orientation that you used the
last time that viewport was current.

The UCS in each viewport is controlled by the UCSVP system variable, which can also be
accessed with the UCSMAN command, on the Settings tab. When UCSVP is set to 1 in a
viewport, the UCS last used in that viewport is saved with the viewport and is restored when the
viewport is made current again. When UCSVP is set to 0 in a viewport, its UCS is always the
same as the UCS in the current viewport.

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For example, you might set up three viewports: a top view, front view, and isometric view. If
you set the UCSVP system variable to 0 in the isometric viewport, you can use the Top UCS in
both the top viewport and the isometric viewport. When you make the top viewport current, the
isometric viewport's UCS reflects the UCS top viewport. Likewise, making the front viewport
current switches the isometric viewport's UCS to match that of the front viewport.

The example is illustrated in the following illustrations. The one shows the isometric viewport
reflecting the UCS of the upper-left, or top, viewport, which is current.

The next illustration shows the change that occurs when the lower-left, or front, viewport is
made current. The UCS in the isometric viewport is updated to reflect the UCS of the front
viewport.

3.5.4 Absolute Coordinates (ACS)

Absolute coordinates are cartesian coordinates based on the WCS origin (0,0), which is the
intersection of the X and Y axes. Use absolute coordinates when you know the precise X and Y
values of the point, the coordinates are in the format X,Y

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NB:With dynamic input ON, you specify absolute coordinates with the # prefix. If you enter
coordinates on the command line instead of in the tooltip, the # prefix is not used.
For example, entering #3,4 specifies a point 3 units along the X axis and 4 units along the Y axis
from the UCS origin.
3.5.4.1 Absolute Coordinate Entry Practice
KNEC Theory July 2016 1c

KNEC Theory Nov 2017 6d

KNEC Theory Nov 2016 1d

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KNEC Theory July 2014 CCT

Absolute Coordinate Entry Practice

Directions: In the table on the right, record the absolute coordinate location for each of the points
that define the object. Start a new drawing, and draw the object using absolute coordinate entry.

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3.5.5 Relative Coordinates(RCS)

Relative coordinates are cartesian coordinates based on the last point entered i.e.they are used to
reference to the previous point entered. Use relative coordinates when you know the location of a
point in relation to the previous point.
To specify relative coordinates, precede the coordinate values with an @ sign i.e @X,Y. For
example, entering @3,4 specifies a point 3 units along the X axis and 4 units along the Y axis from
the last point specified.
The following example draws the sides of a triangle. The first side is a line starting at the absolute
coordinates -2,1 and ending at a point 5 units in the X direction and 0 units in the Y direction. The
second side is a line starting at the endpoint of the first line and ending at a point 0 units in the X
direction and 3 units in the Y direction. The final line segment uses relative coordinates to return
to the starting point.
Command: line
From point: -2,1
To point: @5,0
To point: @0,3
To point: @-5,-3

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3.5.6 Polar Coordinates(PCS)

Polar coordinates are cartesian coordinates that allow a drafter to select a point, specify a length
and an angle to the last point entered i.e. @distance<angle e.g. @10<90
For planar geometry, the polar coordinate system is very useful for certain applications. In the
polar coordinate system, points are defined in terms of a radial distance, r, from the origin and an
angle between the direction of r and the positive X axis. The default system for measuring angles
in AutoCAD 2015 defines positive angular values as counter-clockwise from the positive X-axis

The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system) is called the pole,
and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from the pole
is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the angle is called the angular coordinate, polar
angle, or azimuth. You can use absolute or relative polar coordinates (distance and angle) to
locate points when creating objects.

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To use polar coordinates to specify a point, enter a distance and an angle separated by an angle
bracket (<).

By default, angles increase in the counterclockwise direction and decrease in the clockwise
direction. To specify a clockwise direction, enter a negative value for the angle. For example,
entering 1<315 locates the same point as entering 1<-45. You can change the angle conventions
for the current drawing with the UNITS command.

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Relative Polar Coordinates

Relative coordinates are based on the last point entered. Use relative coordinates when you know
the location of a point in relation to the previous point.

To specify relative coordinates, precede the coordinate values with an @ sign. For example,
entering @1<45 specifies a point at a distance of 1 unit from the last point specified at an angle
of 45 degrees from the X axis.

The following example shows two lines drawn with relative polar coordinates. In each
illustration, the line begins at the location labeled as the previous point.
Command: line
From point: @3<45
To point: @5<285

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3.5.6.1 Relative coordinate system practice

Absolute Polar Coordinates

Absolute polar coordinates are measured from the UCS origin (0,0), which is the intersection of
the X and Y axes. Use absolute polar coordinates when you know the precise distance and angle
coordinates of the point.
With dynamic input OFF, you can specify absolute coordinates with the # prefix
From point: #0,0
To point: #4<120
To point: #5<30
With dynamic input ON, you can specify absolute coordinates with the # prefix. If you enter
coordinates on the command line instead of in the tooltip, the # prefix is not used. For example,
entering #3<45 specifies a point 3 units from the origin at an angle of 45 degrees from the X axis.
The following example shows two lines drawn with absolute polar coordinates using the default
angle direction setting. Enter the following in the tooltip:
Command: line
From point: #0,0
To point: #4<120
To point: #5<30

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With aid of the sketch below indicate the coordinates that can be used to represent the sketch
on AutoCAD
a. Absolute Coordinates
b. Relative Coordinates
c. Polar Coordinates

Identify the firstpoint e.g 10,10 20,20 etc

Command Absolute Coordinates Relative Coordinates Polar Coordinates

Type Line Press Enter Type Line Press Enter Type Line Press Enter Type Line Press Enter

Specify the first point 20,20 20,20 20,20

Specify the next point 80,20 @60,0 @60<0

Specify the next point 80,40 @0,20 @20<90

Specify the next point 60,40 @-20,0 @20<180

Specify the next point 60,60 @0,20 @20<90

Specify the next point 40,60 @-20,0 @20<180

Specify the next point 40,80 @0,20 @20<90

Specify the next point 20,80 @-20,0 @20<180

Specify the next point 20,20 @0,-60 @60<270

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3.5.7 Example of a Sketch Diagram using the various coordinates

1. Select the Line command icon in the Draw toolbar. In the command prompt area, near the
bottom of the AutoCAD graphics window, the message “_line Specify first point:” is displayed.
AutoCAD expects us to identify the starting location of a straight line.
2. Locate the starting point of our design at the origin of the world coordinate system.i.e.
0,0(Type 0,0 and press the [ENTER] key once.)
3. Create a horizontal line by entering the absolute coordinates of the second point. Specify next
point: 5.5,0 [ENTER]
Note that the line we created is aligned to the bottom edge of the drawing
window.
4. Create a vertical line by using the relative coordinates, relative to the last point we specified:
Specify next point @0,2.5 [ENTER]
Left-click once on the coordinates display area to switch to a different
coordinate display option. Note the coordinates display area has
changed to show the length of the new line and its angle. Left-click once on the coordinates
display area again to switch back to using the world coordinate system.
5. Create the next line by picking the location, world coordinates (8,2.5), on the screen.
6.We will next use the relative polar coordinates entry method, relative to the last point we
specified: Specify next point @3<90 [ENTER]
(Distance is 3 inches with an angle of 90 degrees.)
7.Using the relative rectangular coordinates entry method to create the next line, we can imagine
a reference coordinate system aligned at the previous point.Coordinates are measured along the
two reference axes. Specify next point @-1.5,1[ENTER]
8. Next use the relative coordinates entry method to draw a line, relative to the last point we
specified, Specify next point @-6.5,0 [ENTER].
9. For the last segment of the sketch, use the relative polar coordinates to draw a line, relative to
the last point we specified, Specify next point
@0,-6.5 [ENTER].
10. In the option list, select: [Center, Diameter]
Notice the different options available under the circle submenu:
• Center, Radius: Draws a circle based on a center point and a radius.
• Center, Diameter: Draws a circle based on a center point and a diameter.
• 2 Points: Draws a circle based on two endpoints of the diameter.
• 3 Points: Draws a circle based on three points on the circumference.
• TTR–Tangent, Tangent, Radius: Draws a circle with a specified radius
tangent to two objects.
• TTT–Tangent, Tangent, Tangent: Draws a circle tangent to three objects.
11. In the command prompt area, the message “Specify center point for circle or[3P/2P/Ttr (tan
tan radius)]:” is displayed. AutoCAD expects us to identify the location of a point or enter an

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option. We can use any of the four coordinate entry methods to identify the desired location. We
will enter the world coordinates (2.5,3) as the center point for the first circle.
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: 2.5,3 [ENTER]
12. In the command prompt area, the message “Specify diameter of circle:” is
displayed.
Specify diameter of circle: 2.5 [ENTER]
13. Inside the graphics window, right-mouse-click to bring up the popup option menu.
14. Pick Repeat CIRCLE with the left-mouse-buttonin the popup menu to repeat the last
command.
15. Using the relative rectangular coordinates entry method, relative to the center-point
coordinates of the first circle, we specify the location as (2.5,2).Specify center point for circle or
[3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: @2.5,2 [ENTER]
16. In the command prompt area, the message “Specify Radius of circle: <2.50>” is displayed.
The default option for the Circle command in AutoCAD is to specify the radius and the last
radius used is also displayed in brackets.
17. Inside the graphics window, right-mouse-click to bring up the popup option menu and select
Diameter as shown.
18. In the command prompt area, enter 1.5 as the diameter.
Specify Diameter of circle<2.50>: 1.5 [ENTER]

In AutoCAD, there are five methods for specifying the locations of points when we create planar
geometric entities.
1. Absolute coordinates (Format: X,Y): Type the X and Y coordinates to locate the point on
the current coordinate system relative to the origin.
2. Relative rectangular coordinates (Format: @X,Y): Type the X and Y
coordinates relative to the last point.
3. Relative polar coordinates (Format: @Distance<angle): Type a distance and angle
relative to the last point.
4. Interactive method: Use the cursor to select on the screen.
Direct Distance entry technique: Specify a second point by first moving the cursor to indicate
direction and then entering a distance

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3.6 Drawing plane geometry figures in 2-D
The following toolbars are used for drawing various 2-dimension objects such as lines, circles,
arcs, polyline, ellipse, rectangle, hatchingetc

3.6.1 Drawing a LINE

Command sequence for Drawing a Line

a) Click the Line Icon
b) Specify the first point
c) Specify the next point(you can specify several different points)
d) Press Enter/Space bar key or click “close” form the command line

3.6.2 Drawing a POLYLINE

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Command sequence for drawing a Polyline (Pline)
a) Click the polyline Icon
b) Specify the starting point
c) Specify the next point or [arc,halfwidth,Length,Width] i.e.(you can specify different
options)
d) Press Enter/Space bar key
Pay attention to the command line while using POLYLINE tool; it will show you variety of
options for the next move you can take.
Following are some of the examples.
-If you hit “Esc” while drawing a polyline, the line terminates at the last point you clicked.
-If you type “cl” while drawing a polyline, it draws a segment that
connects the starting point and the last point you clicked (the line becomes a closed shape).
- You can also draw an object with arcs using POLYLINE tool.
- If you type “a” while drawing a polyline, your next segment will be an arc. It will
continue to draw arc segments with tangent to the previous arc.
If you type “s” while drawing an arc segment, you can define an arc angle by specifying three
points that the arc goes through.
If you type “r” while drawing an arc segment, you can define an arc radius

3.6.3 Drawing CIRCLES:

There are different options available for drawing the circle:

• Center, Radius: Draws a circle based on a center point and a radius.
• Center, Diameter: Draws a circle based on a center point and a diameter.
• 2 Points: Draws a circle based on two endpoints of the diameter.
• 3 Points: Draws a circle based on three points on the circumference.
• TTR–Tangent, Tangent, Radius: Draws a circle with a specified radiustangent to two objects.
• TTT–Tangent, Tangent, Tangent: Draws a circle tangent to three objects.

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3.6.4 Drawing ARCS

Used to draw various types of arcs

Create arcs by specifying various combinations of center, endpoint, start point, radius, angle,
chord length, and direction values.

Arcs are drawn in a counterclockwise direction by default. Hold down the Ctrl key as you drag to
draw in a clockwise direction.

3.6.4.1 Draw Arcs by Specifying Three Points

You can create an arc by specifying three points. In the following example, the start point of the
arc snaps to the endpoint of a line. The second point of the arc snaps to the middle circle in the
illustration.

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3.6.4.2 Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, Center, End
You can create an arc using a start point, center, and a third point that determines the endpoint.
The distance between the start point and the center determines the radius. The endpoint is
determined by a line from the center that passes through the third point.
Using different options, you can specify either the start point first or the center point first.

3.6.4.3 Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, Center, Angle

You can create an arc using a start point, center, and an included angle.
The distance between the start point and the center determines the radius. The other end of the
arc is determined by specifying an included angle that uses the center of the arc as the vertex.
Using different options, you can specify either the start point first or the center point first.

The included angle determines the endpoint of the arc. Use the Start, End, Angle method when
you know both endpoints but cannot snap to a center point.

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3.6.4.4 Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, Center, Length
You can create an arc using a start point, center, and the length of a chord.
The distance between the start point and the center determines the radius. The other end of the
arc is determined by specifying the length of a chord between the start point and the endpoint of
the arc.
Using different options, you can specify either the start point first or the center point first.

The length of the chord of the arc determines the included angle.

3.6.4.5 Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, End, Angle

You can create an arc using a start point, endpoint, and an included angle.
The included angle between the endpoints of the arc determines the center and the radius of the
arc.

3.6.4.6 Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, End, Direction

You can create an arc using a start point, endpoint, and a tangent direction at the start point.
The tangent direction can be specified either by locating a point on the desired tangent line, or by
entering an angle. You can determine which endpoint controls the tangent by changing the order
in which you specify the two endpoints.

3.6.4.7 Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, End, Radius

You can create an arc using a start point, endpoint, and a radius.
The direction of the bulge of the arc is determined by the order in which you specify its
endpoints. You can specify the radius either by entering it or by specifying a point at the desired
radius distance.

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3.6.4.8 Draw Contiguous Tangent Arcs and Lines
Immediately after you create an arc, you can start a line that is tangent to the arc at an endpoint.
You need to specify only the line length.

Immediately after you create a line or an arc, you can start an arc that is tangent at an endpoint
by starting the ARC command and pressing Enter at the Specify Start Point prompt. You need to
specify only the endpoint of the new arc.

3.6.5 Drawing a RECTANGLE (rec)

Draws a rectangle by defining two corners.

If you type “@” after defining the first corner, you can specify the second corner by x, y
coordination. For example, type @36,24 for 36” x 24” box.
If you type “d” after the first corner, you can specify the second corner by the x and y distance
from the first corner. For example, type “d” > space > 36 > space > 24 for 36” x 24” box

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3.6.6 Drawing a POLYGON

Draws a polygon by number of edges.

If you choose to inscribe in circle, it draws a polygon inside the circle with the radius you
specify.
If you choose to circumscribe about circle, it draws a polygon that contains the circle with the
radius you specify.

3.6.7 Drawing a SPLINE

Draws a spline connecting multiple points.

Define the points that a spline goes though by clicking.
End the tool by hitting Esc (terminates the spline at the last pointclicked) or typing “cl” (adds a
curve back to the starting point).

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Spline has a tendency to increase the file size and may cause complication when modify later.
Excessive use of splines are not recommended especially when sharing a file with other people

3.6.8 Drawing an ELLIPSE

Used to draw irregular circles(ellipse) using a center, elliptical arc & axis and end

3.6.9 Hatching

Fills an enclosed area or selected objects with a hatch pattern, solid or gradient fill.1.Go to the
Draw panel on the Home tab. Find the hatch icon in the bottom right corner.

2. You will see a “Hatch creation” tab. Go to its Properties panel and choose the Hatch type that
you would like to insert. Choose between Solid, Gradient, Pattern or User Defined.

3. Further specify the pattern on the Pattern panel.

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4. Choose your desired method: “Pick Points” or “Select Boundary Objects”. The “Pick Points”
will determine a boundary around the specified point. The “Select Boundary Objects” will allow
you to manually select the boundaries of the area that you would like to hatch.

5. After filling the area, hit “Enter” to apply the hatch.

3.6.9.1 Pick internal point

Determines a boundary from existing objects that form an enclosed area around the
specified point.

3.6.9.2 Select objects

Determines a boundary from selected objects that form an enclosed area.

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 Type: usually predefined

Pattern: choose the pattern

from list (pull down) or
clicking either of these.
You can modify the angle
and scale of patterns
When hatching a space
defined by different objects
such as an overlapped zone of
2 circles, select “Add Pick
points”.
When hatching a complete
object, such as
circle, rectangle, or polygon,
select “Add select
object”. If you wish, you can
pick multiple objects
at one time.
When hatching a space defined by different objects such as an overlapped zone of 2 circles,
select “Add Pick points”. The more complex the area is the longer it takes to calculate. You get
an error message when the area is too complicated to calculate. Zooming in/out to the hatching
area sometimes helps. You can also manually manipulate the selection areas by using buttons
below: “remove boundaries” and
“recreate boundaries”

When hatching a complete object, such as circle, rectangle, or polygon, select “Add select
object”. If you wish, you can pick multiple objects at one time.

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3.6.9.3 Hatch Gap Tolerance
If you need to insert a hatch in an area that isn’t completely “closed” you should set the gap
tolerance By default, Gap tolerance setting is set to zero which means that a hatch area has to be
completely closed. You can reset this to a value up to 5,000.

3.6.9.4 Associative and Non Associative hatching

The basic difference associative hatch moves with the boundaryi.e the hatched object boundary
and the hatch are a single object but in case of non-associative hatching it does not movei.e the
hatched object boundary and the hatch are a separate objects.

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3.6.9.5 Annotative Hatching
Using Annotative scaling you can attach some information to a hatch to tell the hatch when it
should be visible, and how it should look. An Annotative hatch which has 1:1 scale attached will
only show up in 1:1 scale Viewports.
An Annotative hatch with 1:1and 1:10 scales attached will show up in 1:1 scale viewports and
1:10 scale viewports and it it will be scaled to the correct size automatically.

3.6.9.6 Removing Hatch

a. Click on Remove
b. Select objects or [Add Boundaries]<Enter>

Or

1. Click Content Editor tab Tools panel Hatch drop-down Edit . Find.
2. In the drawing area, select the icon corresponding to the hatch you want to edit.
3. In the drawing area, specify a point inside the island you want to eliminate, and then
press Enter.

Or
1. Click on the hatch
2. Press “Delete Key” from the keyboard.

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3.7 Modifying commands in AutoCAD
AutoCAD drawings are rarely completed simply by drawing lines, circles etc most likely you
will need to Modify these basic drawing objects in some way in order to create the image you
need. AutoCAD provides a whole range of modify tools such as Move, Copy, Rotate, Mirror etc.
As is usual with AutoCAD, the Modify tools can be accessed in one of three ways, from the
keyboard, from the pull-down menu and from the toolbar. All of the Modify tools are available
from the Modify pull-down and the Modify toolbar. In each section below, the toolbar, pull-
down and keyboard options are given. The method you choose is entirely up to you. Ultimately
you will use the method that you feel most comfortable with or the one you find most efficient.
AutoCAD allows great flexibility and there aren't any right or wrong ways of working. That said,
it should be pointed out that the use of toolbars in AutoCAD is almost always quicker than any
other method

a. Erase-deletes/erases the selected object; delete key on the keyboard can also be used to
delete objects
b. Copy(cp)-copies the selected object(s) from one location on the drawing area to another
c. Mirror(mi)-creates a mirrored object on the opposite side of the line that the user defines
as the mirror line
d. Offset(o)-Creates a new object parallel to or concentric with a selected object
e. Move(m)-moves the selected objects from one location to another within the drawing
area
f. Rotate(r)-allows an object or objects to be rotated about a point selected by the user
g. Scale(sc)-changes the size of an object of group of objects with a specified scale factor
h. Break(br)-enables the removal of a part of an object by defining either one break point or
two break points
i. Trim-used to remove unwanted parts of an object using a boundary edge
j. Extend-used to extend an object such as a line to a specified boundary edge
k. Fillet-allows the drawing of an arc between two intersecting lines or adjacent polylines
l. Chamfer-allows creation of a symmetrical sloping surface(bevel) at two intersecting
lines(edge or corner)
m. Stretch-used to move one or more vertices of an object while leaving the rest of the object
unchanged

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 n. Explode-breaks a compound object into its individual independent components
o. Polyline Edit-used to extend a polyline
p. Array-Creates copies of objects arranged in a pattern. You can create copies of objects in
a regularly spaced rectangular, polar, or path array

a. ERASE Command-erases the selected objects. You can get the same effect by selecting
objects and hitting Delete key.

b.COPY Command (cp): copies the selected objects from one place to another.
 Click on copy icon from the modifying toolbar or Type copy on the command line
 Select objects: Select object to be copied and press Enter
 Specify base point or [Displacement/mode/Multiple] <Displacement>: Specify a base
point or enter an option
 Specify second point or [Array] <use first point as displacement>: Specify a second point
or enter an option

To use the Copy command:

Displacement
Specifies a relative distance and direction using coordinates.
The two points you specify define a vector that indicates how far from the original the copied
object(s) are to be placed and in what direction.
If you press Enter at the Specify Second Point prompt, the first point is interpreted as a relative
X,Y,Z displacement. For example, if you specify 2,3 for the base point and press Enter at the next
prompt, the objects are copied 2 units in the X direction and 3 units in the Y direction from their
current location.
Mode
Controls whether the command repeats automatically (COPYMODE system variable).
Single
Creates a single copy of selected objects and ends the command.
Multiple

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Overrides the Single mode setting. The COPY command is set to repeat automatically for the
duration of the command.
Array
Arranges a specified number of copies in a linear array.

c. MIRROR Command (mi): mirrors objects along the line that you define.
The Mirror command allows you to mirror selected objects in your drawing by picking them and
then defining the position of an imaginary mirror line using two points.

Mirror Command Sequence

 Click on Mirror icon from the modifying toolbar or Type mirror on the command line
 Select objects <Enter>
 Specify first point of mirror line:
 Specify second point of mirror line:
 Erase source objects? [Yes/No] <N>: (for No to keep the original object Yes to erase the
original object then press Enter )
d.OFFSET Command (o)
Offset is probably one of the most useful commands for constructing drawings. The Offset
command creates a new object parallel to or concentric with a selected object. The new object is
drawn at a user defined distance (the offset) from the original and in a direction chosen by the
user with a pick point. You can offset lines, arcs, circles, ellipses, 2D polylines, xlines, rays and
planar splines
Offsets objects to the distance you specify. It will ask you the distance to offset objects first. you
can specify it by typing the distance in or clicking two points on screen. After entering the
distance, grab an object to offset and click on the side that you want to offset it to. You can offset
an object multiple times in the same distance by repeating click

Offset Command Sequence:

 Click on Offset icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Offset on the command line
 Specify offset distance or [Through]
 Select object to offset {Enter}:
 Specify point on side to offset{Enter}:

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e.MOVECommand (m): moves the selected objects from one place to another.
Move Command Sequence:
 Click on Move icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Move on the command line
 Select object(s){Enter}
 Click or Type a base point
 Specify the second point that you want to move objects to

f. Rotate Command
The Rotate command allows an object or objects to be rotated about a point selected by the user.
AutoCAD prompts for a second rotation point or an angle which can be typed at the keyboard
RotateCommand Sequence
• Click on Rotate icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Rotate on the command line
• Select objects{Enter}
• Specify base point:
• Specify rotation angle or [Reference]: (pick second point or enter angle)
Remember, by default, AutoCAD angles increase in an anti-clockwise direction henceIf you
want to rotate in a clockwise direction you can enter a negative angle by using a minus sign.

g. SCALE Command (sc): scale objects by the ratio you specify.

The Scale command can be used to change the size of an object or group of objects. You are
prompted for a pick point about which the selection set will be scaled. Scaling can then be
completed by picking a second point (not always easy because it can sometimes be difficult to
precisely control the scaling) or by entering a scale factor at the keyboard. For example scale
factors of 2 will double the size of the objects in the selection set and a factor of 0.5 will half
them.
Scale Command Sequence
• Click on Scale icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Scale on the command line
• Select objects: Enter
• Specify base point:
• Specify scale factor or [Reference]: (pick second point or enter scale factor)

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h.Break Command
The Break command enables you to break (remove part of) an object by defining two break
points. The Break command can be used with lines, polylines, circles, arcs ellipses, splines,
xlines and rays. When you break an object, you can either select the object using the first break
point and then pick the second break point, or you can select the object and then pick the two
break points.

BreakCommand Sequence
• Click on Break icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Break on the command line
• Select objects: (select the object clicking the first break point)
• Specify second break point or [First point]: (pick the second break point)
i. Trim Command
The Trim command can be used to trim a part of an object. In order to trim an object you must
draw a second object which forms the "cutting edge". Cutting edges can be lines, xlines, rays,
polylines, circles, arcs or ellipses. Blocks and text cannot be trimmed or used as cutting edges.
TrimCommand Sequence
 Click on Trim icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Trim on the command line
• Select object (Trim boundary){Enter}
• Select the edges to trim or click on the objects to trim
You can trim multiple objects at once by using selection window or “fence” tool.
To use selection window, draw a window after selecting trim edges instead of directly clicking
on objects to trim.
To use fence, type “f” after selecting trim edges and draw a line. It will trim everything that the
line crosses.

j. Extend Command
This command extends a line, polyline or arc to meet another drawing object (known as the
boundary edge). Two selections are made, one for the boundary edge(s) and one for the object(s)
to extend

Command Sequence

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Click EXTEND command from the modify tool bar or type Extend on the command line
Select objects: (select the boundary edge,e.g. P1)
Press Enter
Select object(s) to extend or shift-select to trim or [Project/Edge/Undo]: (pick the object which
you want to be extended to the boundary edge e.g P2 and P3 )

k. Fillet command connects two objects with an arc that is tangent to the objects and has a
specified radius.
A round or fillet can be created between two objects of the same or different object types: 2D
polylines, arcs, circles, ellipses, elliptical arcs, lines, rays, splines, and xlines. If the two selected
objects are on the same layer, the arc defined is created on that layer.
The Fillet command is a very useful tool which allows you to draw an arc between two
intersecting lines or adjacent polyline segments. You first need to use the command to set the
required radius and then a second time to select the two lines

Command Sequence
• Click on Fillet icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Fillet on the command line
• Click Radius or Type R and Press Enter.
• Specify the fillet Radius and Press Enter.
• Select the first line.
• Select the second line

Worked Example

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Select first object or [Polyline/Radius/Trim]: R
Specify fillet radius <10.000>: 25
Select first object or [Polyline/Radius/Trim]: (pick P1)
Select second object : (pick P2)

a. Chamfer Command
Chamfer command creates a chamfer or bevel that connects two objects with an angled line in
2D, or creates an angled face between the adjacent faces of a 3D solid
The Chamfer command enables you to create a chamfer between any two non-parallel lines as in
the illustration below or any two adjacent polyline segments. Usually, the Chamfer command is
used to set the chamfer distances before drawing the chamfer. Follow the command sequence
below where the chamfer distances are changed to 20 before the chamfer is made

Command sequence
a. Click on Chamfer icon from the modifying toolbar or Type Chamfer on the command
line
b. Select the first line ;Click Distance or Type D and Press Enter.
c. Specify the first chamfer distance and Press Enter.
d. Specify the second chamfer distance and Press Enter.
e. Select the second line

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m.Stretch Command
The Stretch command can be used to move one or more vertices of an object whilst leaving the
rest of the object unchanged. In the example below, a rectangle has been stretched by moving
one vertex to create an irregular shape.

Stretch Command Sequence

Select objects to stretch by crossing-window or crossing-polygon...
Select objects: (pick first point of crossing window)
Specify opposite corner: (pick second point of window)
Select objects: (to end selection)
Specify base point or displacement: (pick base point)
Specify second point of displacement: (pick second point)

To select vertices to stretch, you must use a crossing window or polygon. See the "Object
Selection" tutorial for details of these selection methods

n. EXPLODE (x): break selected complex objects such as blocks and polylines down to lines
and arcs.

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o. POLYLINE EDIT (pe): There are extensive options to edit polyline. Please pay attention to
the command line for the available options and directions

p. DIVIDE (div): Divide an object into certain length or perimeter segment. You can draw from
the node or you can place objects along the nodes. i.e. You want to place 5 trees equally on a
line.
Select object to divide, enter # of segments.
q. MEASURE (me): Places point objects or blocks at measured intervals on an object. i.e. You
want to place trees every 50 feet.

q.The Array Command

The Array command makes multiple copies of selected objects in a rectangular matrix (columns
and rows) or a polar (circular) or on path pattern.
A drafter can use the ARRAYRECT, ARRAYPOLAR and ARRAYPATH command in
AutoCAD. These commands will help you create objects, and create a sort of network made by
copies of the original object arranged into a combination.
The ARRAYRECT will help distribute identical objects in rows and column.
The ARRAYPOLAR will help distribute objects in a circular pattern around a center point.
The ARRAYPATH will help distribute objects along a path.
You can find all these commands under the Modify section of the ribbon Panel.

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This command has been completely transformed in AutoCAD 2015. It is now completely dialogue
box driven with the option to see a preview of the array before it is created. You can also now
create rectangular arrays at a user specified angle angle. This constitutes a major improvement in
usability.
The Rectangular Array

The illustration on the right shows the results of a rectangular array with two columns and three
rows. The distance between rows is indicated with the dimension DR and between columns
with DC. When creating rectangular arrays it is important to remember that new rows are created
above the original object and new columns are created to the right of the original object. The
resulting array is, therefore, always created with the original object in the bottom left hand position
with respect to the current co-ordinate system. In the illustration, the original object is shown in
cyan and the new objects in red. It is possible to create arrays which do not align with the World
Co-ordinate System by setting a User Co-ordinate System first.
Try creating this array yourself. First, draw a rectangle 20 drawing units wide and 10 drawing units
tall. To do this, start the rectangle command Draw Rectangle from the pull-down menu. When
you are prompted to pick a point, pick somewhere in the lower left quarter of the drawing area.
Then, when you are prompted for a second point, enter the relative cartesian co-ordinate @20,10.
You have now drawn a rectangle at the right size. See the Using Co-ordinates tutorial for more
information on drawing with co-ordinates.

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Now start the Array command. First of all, make sure that the Rectangular Array radio button is
selected and that you are looking at the Rectangular Array dialogue box and now follow the steps
below:
1. Click the Select objects button. The dialogue box will temporarily disappear enabling you
to select the rectangle you just drew. Press the Return button on your keyboard to complete
the selection. You are now returned to the dialogue box and the message immediately
below the Select Objects button should read "1 objects selected".
2. Enter the number of rows required in the Rows edit box. For this example, enter the value
"3". Notice that the schematic preview on the right hand side of the dialogue box updates
to reflect the values you are entering.
3. Enter the number of columns required in the Columns edit box. Enter the value "2".
4. Enter the row offset in the Row Offset edit box. This is the distance DR in the illustration
above. Note that tis is not the distance between rows. In this example, our rectangle is 10
units high and we will enter a row offset of 15. The result will be a 5 unit gap between
rectangles.
5. Enter the column offset in the Column Offset edit box. The same parameters apply as for
the row offset. Enter a value of 25 to give a 5 unit gap between our rectangles.

6. Click on the Preview button. Once again, the

dialogue box disappears and the specified array is temporarily drawn so that we can
preview it. We are now offered 3 choices. If the array isn't quite right, click the Modify
button to return to the Array dialogue box. If you are happy with the array, click the Accept
button, the array will be permanently drawn and the command is ended.
You should now have an array that looks similar to the one in the illustration above consisting of
6 rectangles arranged in 3 rows and 2 columns. As you can se, this command is very powerful and
can save lots of time if used carefully.

The Polar Array

The polar array works in a similar way to the rectangular array. The main difference is that rather
than specifying the number and offset for rows and columns, you must specify a center point and
the total number of objects in the array (including the original object).

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You can try this for yourself by drawing another rectangle as described above. This time, though,
locate the rectangle in the centre top half of the drawing area. Now, start the Array command, click
the Polar Array radio button and follow the steps below:
1. Click the Select objects button. The dialogue box will temporarily disappear enabling you
to select the rectangle you just drew. Press the Return button on your keyboard to complete
the selection. You are now returned to the dialogue box and the message immediately
below the Select Objects button should read "1 objects selected".
2. Specify the center point for the array. This is the point C in the illustration below. You can
do this by entering x and y co-ordinates into the appropriate edit boxes if you know what
these values should be. However, this is rarely the case and most often you will want to
click the Pick Center Point button to pick a point from the drawing area. Pick a point
somewhere below the rectangle you have just drawn.
3. Enter a value for the total number of items. For this example, enter the value "6". Notice
that once again, the schematic preview updates to reflect the values you have entered.
4. Make sure that the Rotate items as copied checkbox is checked.

5. Click on the Preview button. Once again, the dialogue box disappears and the specified
array is temporarily drawn so that we can preview it. We are now offered 3 choices. If the
array isn't quite right, click the Modify button to return to the Array dialogue box. If you
are happy with the array, click the Accept button, the array will be permanently drawn and
the command is ended.
The array you have just drawn should look something like the one illustrated below, left. Take
some time to play around with the other options in the Array dialogue box to see what they can
do.

The illustration above shows the results of a polar array using an original rectangle (cyan) copied
six times about a centre point C, through an angle of 360 degrees (full circle). The only difference
between the array on the left and the one on the right is that the Rotate items as copied checkbox
was not checked in the right hand example.
All new objects created with the Array command will inherit the object properties of the original
object. See the "Object Properties" tutorial for information on object properties.

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3.8 Annotation
Annotation deals with dimensions, notes, and other types of explanatory symbols or objects
commonly used to add information to your drawing.

Annotation provides information about a feature, such as the length of a wall, the diameter of a
fastener, or a detail callout. Typically, annotation objects are scaled differently than the views of
the drawing, and depend on the scale of how they should appear when plotted.

You can control the method that an annotation object is scaled by defining the object either as
non-annotative or annotative.

 Non-annotative objects, require a fixed size or scale that is calculated based on the scale
used to plot the drawing.
 Annotative objects automatically adjust to display uniformly at the same size or scale
regardless of the scale of the view.

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The following lists the common annotations you can create in a drawing.

Annotation Drawing Object

Notes and labels Single-line text Multiline text

Tabular data Table
Dimensions and geometric tolerances Dimension Geometric tolerance
Hatches, gradients, and fills Hatch
Notes and symbols with leaders Leader ,Multileader
Title blocks and attributes Block Attribute definition

3.9 Dimensioning
Dimensioning is the process of defining the size, form and location of geometric features and
components through marking with measurements. A Dimension is a numerical value expressed in
appropriate units of measurement and used to define the size, location, orientation, form or other
geometric characteristics of a part
The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an object.
A complete set of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to construct the part.
Dimensioning should follow these guidelines.
Accuracy: correct values must be given.
Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.
Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.
Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility

The two main dimension styles are:

a. Annotative dimension style- creates dimensions in which all the elements of the
dimension, such as text, spacing, and arrows, scale uniformly by the annotation scale
Standard style
b. Standard dimension style- creates dimensions based on conventions or agreements
maintained by the design industry.

Similarly a designer can set up a new dimension style,modify an existing style, override a style or
compare styles form Dimension Style Manager by clicking“managedimensionstyles” or the
“dimension style”
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Parts that make up dimensions in AutoCAD

Dimension Space
The DIMSPACE command allows you to specify the space between the dimension lines of parallel
linear or concentric arc dimensions.

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3.10 Techniques of Dimensioning Models
1. Linear Dimensioning
2. Aligned Dimensioning
3. Radius Dimensioning
4. Diameter Dimensioning
5. Angular Dimensioning
6. Arc length dimensioning
7. Reference Dimensioning
8. Baseline dimensioning
9. Continue dimensioning
10. Ordinate dimensioning

3.10.1 Linear Dimensioning

A dimension measured along a straight line, dimensions are always inserted above the dimension
line and placed to be read either from the bottom or from the right-hand side of the drawing. Units
of linear measure include inch, foot, meter, kilometer and mile

Examples of Linear Dimensions

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3.10.2 Aligned dimensioning
A dimension that measures the distance between two points at any angle. The dimension line is
parallel to the line connecting the dimension's definition points. (DIMALIGNED).
Used to measure or dimension inclined edges, diagonals, bevels, chamfers or isoplanes distances.
The dimension should be placed near the middle or above the dimension line.
Examples of aligned dimension

3.10.3 Diameter Dimensioning

Measures the diameter of the selected circle or arc and displays the dimension text with a diameter
symbol in front of it

3.10.4 Radius Dimensioning

Measures the radius of a selected circle or arc and displays the dimension text with a radius
symbol in front of it.

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3.10.5 Angular Dimensioning
A dimension that measures angles or arc segments and consists of text, extension lines, and
leaders. (DIMANGULAR)
A system of dimensioning which annotate the angle measured between two lines, two linear
segments of a polyline or the angle of a circular arc.

3.10.6 Reference dimensioning

A reference dimension is a dimension on an engineering drawing provided for information

only. Reference dimensions are provided for a variety of reasons and are often an accumulation of
other dimensions that are defined elsewhere (e.g. on the drawing or other related documentation).

3.10.7 Ordinate Dimensioning

Ordinate dimensions are a set of dimensions measured from a zero ordinate in a drawing or sketch.
In drawings, they are reference dimensions and you cannot change their values or use the values
to drive the model. Ordinate dimensions are measured from the axis you select first.Ordinate
dimensions measure the perpendicular distances from an origin point called the datum, such as a
hole in a part. These dimensions prevent escalating errors by maintaining accurate offsets of the
features from the datum

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3.10.8 Baseline Dimensioning

Baseline dimension allows for the dimensioning of a linear distance of a collection of references,
relative to a single base reference. The first point chosen is the 'base’ and all subsequent points are
relative to this first point.
Baseline dimension creates a linear, angular, or ordinate dimension from the baseline of the
previous or selected dimension.
The default spacing between baseline dimensions can be set from the Dimension Style Manager,
Lines tab, Baseline Spacing (DIMDLI system variable).
If no dimension was created in the current session, you are prompted to select a linear, ordinate,
or angular dimension to use as the base for the baseline dimension. To end the command, press
Enter twice, or press Esc. The current dimension style determines the appearance of the text.
By default, the dimension style of the baseline dimension is inherited from the previous or selected
dimension..

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Continue Dimensioning
Continue dimensioning is used for drawing a string of dimensions, each of whose second extension
line origin coincides with the next dimension’s first extension line origin.

3.10.9 Arc length dimensioning.

Arc length dimensions measure the distance along an arc or polyline arcs segment, the extension
lines of an arc length dimension can be orthogonal or radial ,to differentiate them from linear or
angular dimensions, arc length dimensions display an arc symbol by default. The arc symbol,
also called a hat or cap, is displayed either above the dimension text or preceding
the dimension text.
How to use Arc Length dimensions
• Click Annotate tab Dimensions panel
• Hover over an arc or an arc segment in a polyline.
• Select the arc or the arc segment in a polyline.
• Click to place the dimension line.
• Repeat steps to continue dimensioning or press Enter to end dimensioning

Oblique command
OBLIQUE command allows to slant the extension lines of a linear or aligned dimension to a
specified angle. The dimension line will follow the extension lines, retaining its original direction.
This is useful for having the dimension stay clear of other dimensions or objects in your drawing.

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It is also a conventional method of dimensioning isometric drawings.

3.11 Multileader
MLEADER Command is used to to connect annotation to objects or other features in the drawing.
Options include Leader Type, Leader Landing, Content Type, Maxpoints, First Angle, and Second
Angle.Add Leader Command is used to add leader line and arrow combinations to an existing
multileader.

Example of a Diagram dimensioned using Linear, aligned, Angular, Diameter and radius
dimensioning baseline
linear continue
radius
diameter
aligned

baseline angular

angular

L
in
e
ar angular radius

e
ar linear
continue baseline

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3.12 Tolerances

AutoCAD provides a special set of subcommands for the two major methods of specifying
tolerances: Lateral Tolerance and Geometric Tolerance. Lateral tolerance draws the traditional
symbols and text for Limit, Plus or Minus (unilateral and bilateral), Single Limit, and Angular
tolerance dimensioning.
Lateral tolerance is the range from the smallest to the greatest that a dimension is allowed to
deviate and still be acceptable. Lateral tolerance and its related settings are set in the Dimension
Style Manager dialog box (Tolerances tab).

3.13 Layers
A layer is a drawing component/file that is used to organize objects such as lines by assigning
them a function within a drawing. A layer can be assigned a function for drawing doors, windows,
floors, RAM chips CPU to differentiate the different parts of the model.
Each new layer is created by you, the user. Normally, it is acceptable to have a layer for each
different part of a drawing. Layers are a way of managing, tidying and also controlling the visual
layout of a drawing.
Layer manager shows your current layer name and state and is used to manage the layers in
terms of the status, layer name, layer color, plotting, linetypes, lineweights and
locking/unlocking. To access Layer Manager, click on the highlighted icon or type “layer” on the
command most useful layer icons, especially when you have a lot of layers.
Organize your drawing by assigning objects to layers. You gain this level of control by
organizing the objects in your drawing on layers that are associated with a specific function or a
purpose. It might be helpful to think of layers as clear plastic sheets: With layers, you can.
The Defpoints Layer is a standard system layer used by AutoCAD, when you create dimensions
in AutoCAD, the dimensioning components such as extension lines, arrowheads, dimension
lines, and dimension text are placed on the current layer.

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3.13.1 Layer property manager

The following tools are found on layers property manager

a) Add a New Layer - Press the New button to create a new layer.
b) Delete a Layer - Press the delete button to delete the selected layer.
c) Set Current layer - Press the current button to set the selected layer current. All objects
drawn will then be drawn on this current layer.

Each layer also has the following options against it:

 Status-indicates current active layer.

 Name - Displays the layer name.
 On - Controls if the layer is on or off. Select the light bulb to turn the layer off on the
drawing.
 Freeze in all VP - Pressing this will freeze the layer in all viewports as well as the current
model view
 Lock - This handy feature locks a layer preventing any content of the layer from being
modified.
 Color - Change this to whichever color you like. All objects drawn on the layer will
display the chosen color provided that the objects color setting in the object properties
toolbar (shown above) is set to 'By Layer'.
 Line type - Set the default line type for all objects drawn on the layer. i.e continuous,
dashed, dotted etc.

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  Line weight - Set the thickness a line appears .Default is no thickness. This option can be
toggled on/off on the display by the LWT button above the command console.
 Plot - Select if the layer will be shown when the drawing is plotted (printed).
The current layer, layer color, line type and line weight can all be controlled outside of the layer
properties manager via the object properties toolbar.

Add a New
Layer

Add a New
Layer
frozen in all
view ports

delete the
selected
layer.

set the
selected
layer
current

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Organize your drawing by assigning objects to layers.
When a drawing becomes visually complex, you can hide the objects that you currently do not
need to see.
In the drawing below, the doors and electrical wiring were temporarily hidden by turning off
their layers.

You gain this level of control by organizing the objects in your drawing on layers that are
associated with a specific function or a purpose. It might be helpful to think of layers as clear
plastic sheets:
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With layers, you can
 Associate objects by their function or location
 Display or hide all related objects in a single operation
 Enforce linetype, color, and other property standards for each layer
Important: Resist the temptation to create everything on one layer. Layers are the most important
organizing feature available in AutoCAD drawings.

3.13.2 Layer Controls

To see how a drawing is organized, use the LAYER command to open the Layer Properties
Manager. You can either enter LAYER or LA in the Command window, or you can click the
Layer Properties tool on the ribbon.

Here's what the Layer Properties Manager displays in this drawing.

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As indicated, layer 10 WALLS is the current layer. All new objects are automatically placed on
that layer. In the list of layers, the green check next to layer 10 WALLS confirms that it is the
current layer.
In the column labeled On, notice that the light bulb icons for two layers are dark. These layers
were turned off to hide the doors and electrical wiring in the floor plan.
Notice that each layer name starts with a two-digit number. This convention makes it easy to
control the order of the layers because their order does not depend on the alphabet.
Tip: For complex drawings, you might want to consider a more elaborate layer naming standard.
For example, layer names could begin with 3 digits followed by a naming code that
accommodates multiple floors in a building, project numbers, sets of survey and property data,
and so on.
Practical Recommendations

 Layer 0 is the default layer that exists in all drawings and has some esoteric properties.
Instead of using this layer, it's best to create your own layers with meaningful names.
 Any drawing that contains at least one dimension object automatically includes a
reserved layer named Defpoints.
 Create a layer for behind-the-scenes construction geometry, reference geometry, and
notes that you usually do not need to see or print.
 Create a layer for layout viewports. Information about layout viewports is covered in the
Layouts topic.

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  Create a layer for all hatches and fills. This lets you to turn them all on or off in one
action.

3.13.3 Layer Settings

The following are the most commonly used layer settings in the Layer Properties Manager. You
click the icon to turn the setting on and off.
 Turn off layers. You turn off layers to reduce the visual complexity of your drawing
while you work.

 Freeze layers. You freeze layers that you do not need to access for a while. Freezing
layers is similar to turning them off, but improves performance in very large drawings.

 Lock layers. You lock layers when you want to prevent accidental changes to the objects
on those layers. Also, the objects on locked layers appear faded, which helps reduce the
visual complexity of your drawing, but still lets you see the objects faintly.

 Set default properties. You set the default properties for each layer, including color,
linetype, lineweight, and transparency. New objects that you create will use these
properties unless you override them. Overriding layer properties is explained later in this
topic.

3.13.4 Controls in the Layer Properties Manager

To create a new layer, click the button shown and enter the name of the new layer. To make a
different layer the current one, click the layer and then click the indicated button.

3.13.5 Quick Access to Layer Settings

The Layer Properties Manager takes up a lot of space, and you don't always need to access all the
options. For quick access to the most common layer controls, use the controls on the ribbon.

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When no objects are selected, the Layers panel on the Home tab displays the name of the current
layer as shown here.

Occasionally, check to make sure that the objects you create will be on the correct layer. It's easy
to forget to do this, but it's also easy to set. Click the drop-down arrow to display a list of layers,
and then click a layer on the list to make it the current layer. You can also click on any icon in
the list to change its setting.

3.14 Examples of Technical Drawing Lines on AutoCAD application

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3.15 Symbols and Abbreviations in Technical Drawing
The main purpose of symbols and abbreviations is to eliminate too many notes/text in drawings,
this enables one to make clear drawings which are easy to read. The use of recognized symbols
and abbreviations on a drawing can enable the maximum information to be contained within the
drawing in a clear and legible manner with the minimum of effort.
Examples of the symbols and abbreviations are illustrated below

Name Symbol
Diameter

First angle projection

Third angle Projection

Degree (°)
Plus/Minus Tolerance (±)

Abbreviations
 R Radius  NO Number
 A/F Across flats  C/C Centre to Centre
 DRG Drawing  Int Internal
 M Metre  Ext External
 MM Millimetre  NTS Not to Scale
 Min Minimum

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Technical Drawing Plane Geometry Figures and Shapes

Angles
a. Acute angle-an angle that measures less than ninety degrees but more than zero degrees
b. Obtuse Angle- an angle that measures more than 90 degrees but less than 180 degrees
c. Right Angle -an angle of 90°, as in a corner of a square or at the intersection of two
perpendicular straight line
d. Reflex angle- an angle measuring greater than 180 degrees and less than 360 degrees
Triangles
a. Equilateral triangle- a triangle in which all three sides are equal and all angles equal.
Equilateral triangles are also equiangular i.e. all three internal angles are also congruent to
each other and are each 60.
b. Isosceles Triangle- a triangle with two equal sides and the angles opposite the equal sides
are also equal
c. Scalene triangle-a triangle with all sides of different lengths. No sides are equal and no
angles are equal
Quadrilaterals
a. Square-a plane figure with four equal straight sides and four right angle
b. Rectangle-a plane figure with four straight sides, which adjacent sides are unequal and four
right angles.
c. Rhombus- a parallelogram with opposite equal acute angles, opposite equal obtuse angles,
and four equal sides.
d. Rhomboid/Parallelogram- a four-sided plane with opposite sides parallel and equal in
length and opposite angles are equal.
e. Trapezoid- four-sided quadrilateral that has two sides that are parallel and two sides that
are not parallel.
f. Trapezium-with straight sides and NO parallel sides

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Regular Polygons
A regular polygon is a polygon that is equiangular (all its interior angles are of equal size) and
equilateral (all sides has sides of equal length).
POLYGON NO.OF EXTERIOR ANGLE INTERIOR
SIDES Exterior ANGLE
(n) Angle=360/n Interior Angle =
(n-2) × 180° / n or
1800-Exterior Angle
Pentagon 5 360° / 5 =72° 1800-72=108

Hexagon 6 360° / 6 =60° 180° - 60° = 120

Heptagon 7 360° / 7 =51.4 180° - 51.4° = 128.6

Octagon 8 360° / 8 = 45° 180° - 45° = 135°

Nonagon 9 360° / 9 = 40° 180° - 40° = 140°

Decagon 10 360° / 10 = 36° 180° - 36° = 144°

Dodecagon 11 360° / 11 = 32.7° 180° - 32.7° = 147.3

Examples of 3D SHAPES

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Types of technical drawing Projections

Technical drawings are constructed on the basis of fundamental principles of projection. There are
two main types of technical drawing projections: parallel projection and perspective projection.
A projection or elevation is any drawing, draft or representation of an idea or object that is carried
out after considering views from various imaginary planes. Projections, which are quite similar to
the direct views that one can see on televisions, can be used to represent actual objects.
3.16 Perspective Projection

Perspective projection is the type of projection in which object/model projections appear smaller
as the distance from an observer increases: objects dimensions along a line of sight appear shorter
than they actually are

perspective projections

There are 3 types of perspective projections: 1 point, 2 point, and 3 point projections. One point
perspective projections consists of 1 vanishing point, while 2 point and 3 point perspective
projections consist of 2 and 3 vanishing points, respectively.
A vanishing point is a point of convergence where all lines of sight meet.

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3.17 Parallel Projection

Parallel projection is the type of projection in which the object or model projections remains the
same despite the change of distance of the observer from the object/model. The lines of sight or
projectors are parallel to each other, and also perpendicular to the planes of objects or images.

Parallel projection can be categorized or divided into

1. Orthographic projection,
2. Isometric projection.
3. Oblique projection

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3.17.1 Orthographic projection

Orthographic projection is a technical drawing method in which different views or projections or

elevations of a model or an assembled object are observed and projected perpendicularly to
respective reference plane;
The reference planes are:
Horizontal Plane (HP) where the Plan or Top view /elevation/projection is projected,
Vertical Plane (VP) where the Front view/elevation is projected,
Side or Profile Plane (PP), where the Side or End View/elevation/projection is projected

Orthographic projection (or drawing) is the type of projection in which assembled objects/models
projections/elevations/views are represented in 2 dimensions on projecting planes.
Orthographic projection can also be defined as the type of projection in which views are taken on
different planes of objects and drawn (or represented) in 2 dimensions as illustrated by the principal
views shown in the figures below:
3.17.1.1 Six general views in orthographic projection

a). Isometric View

b). Object enclosed in a glass

box

c).Orthographic projections

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The orthographic projection enables designers to create single/multiple views of an object/ or
model.
To understand orthographic projection consider the following
 An observer
 An object
 A Projection/Elevation/View(Projection plane)
There are two methods of representing objects views in orthographic projection:
1. First angle projection
2. Third angle projection
The names first angle and third angle are derived from mathematics. A circle is divided into four
right angles thus forming four quadrants.
The first angle is from 00 to 900 in the first quadrant and the third angle is from 1800 to 2700 in the
third quadrant. Both systems of projection, First and Third angle, are approved internationally and
have equal status. The system used must be clearly indicated on every drawing, using the
appropriate symbol, First Angle projection is widely used internationally/ Europe and Asia while
Third Angle projection is widely used in the USA.

0
90

0 0
180 0

0
270

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3.17.1.2 First angle projection

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3.17.1.3 Third angle projection

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3.17.1.4 Orthographic Practice Exercises
The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side view
Solution

The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side view
Solution

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The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side view

Solution

A B
The Figure below shows an assembled drawing block diagram. Sketch the front view, end view
and the top view using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as
the end view
Solution

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The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front elevation, side elevation and the
plan using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side

A B

The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side
Solution

A B

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The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the third angle projection
Solution

The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, end view and the top view
using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side view

Solution

A
B

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The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side view

Solution

f.The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side view

Solution

g.The Figure below shows an assembled drawing block diagram. Sketch the front view, end view
and the top view using the 3rd angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the
end view

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 Solution

B
A

The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top view
using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side view

The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front elevation, side elevation and the
top elevation using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the
side view

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 A
B
The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view and the top using the first
angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front

The Figure below shows an isometric view of a model. Sketch the front view and the top view
using the first angle projection taking direction labeled FV as the front

The Figure below shows an assembled drawing block diagram. Sketch the front view, side view
and the top view using the 1st angle projection taking direction labeled FV as the front and SV as
the side view
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The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front elevation, side elevation and the
top elevation using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the
side view

The Figure below shows an assembled drawing block diagram. Sketch the front view, end view
and the top view using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as
the end view Solution

A
B

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3.17.1.5 Orthographic Projection previous KNEC questions
KNEC JULY 2014

KNEC JULY 2015 Q1d

KNEC NOV 2015

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 KNEC NOV 2016

KNEC JULY 2017 Q4c

KNEC NOVEMBER 2017

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 KNEC July 2015 Practical
The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front elevation, side elevation and the
top elevation using the first angle projection taking direction labeled Front View as the front and

KNEC July 2020 Practical

The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front elevation, side elevation and the
top elevation using the third angle projection taking direction labeled Front View as the front

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3.17.2 Isometric Projection

Isometric projection is the process of sketching assembled block diagrams having the X,Y & Z
planes from arranged views/projections/elevations of orthographic projections or the assembly of
arranged orthographic views/elevations/projections into assembled block diagrams.
Isometric projection is the way of presenting designs/drawings on the X, Y and Z plane in 2D.
Models in isometric projection have a 30 degree angle applied to its sides i.e. 30 degree on the X-
plane and 30 degree on Y-plane as shown in cubes below.

3.17.2.1 Procedure for drawing Isometric Projections from Orthographic Projections

1st step:
Draw a rectangular prism with a proportional length, width and height, to the orthographic
projections
Identify a front side on the rectangular prism.
2nd step:
Draw the visible outlines/continuous thick lines of the front elevation from orthographic
projection drawing on the front side identified on the isometric projected rectangular prism.
3rd step:
Draw the visible outlines/continuous thick lines of top view of orthographic projection on the
isometric projected rectangular prism.
Complete the front and the top side on the isometric projected rectangular prism
4th step:
Draw the visible outlines/continuous lines of the side view of orthographic projection drawing
on the rectangular prism/isometric projection
5th step:
Draw the hidden lines on the front view, top view and side view respectively.

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3.17.2.2 Examples of the Orthographic projection to Isometric Projection

1st step:
Draw a rectangular prism with a proportional length, width and height, to the orthographic
projections
Identify a front side on the rectangular prism. In this example, a front view is shown by an arrow
line

2nd step:
Draw the visible outlines/continuous lines of the front elevation from orthographic projection
drawing on the front side identified on the isometric projected rectangular prism

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3rd step:
Draw the visible outlines/continuous lines of top view of orthographic projection on the
isometric projected rectangular prism.

4th step:
Other continuous lines on the front and top view is completed

5th step:
Hidden lines on the right view is drawn

A hollow part below the object is represented by continuous line B and line C. Continuous line C
has a role as the end of hollow part. After whole lines is completed, the final object is shown below:

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3.17.2.3 Isometric Projection Exercises
Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection
Solution

Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection

Solution

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Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection
Solution

Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection

Solution

Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection

Solution

Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection

Solution
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Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection
Solution

Draw the Isometric Projection of the following Orthographic projection

Solution

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3.17.2.4 Isometric projection previous KNEC questions
KNEC THEORY JULY 2013

KNEC THEORY NOVEMBER 2016

KNEC THEORY NOVEMBER 2017 Q3C

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 KNEC NOVEMBER 2015 THEORY

KNEC NOVEMBER 2015 PRACTICAL

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KNEC MARCH 2020 PRACTICAL

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3.17.3 Oblique projection

Oblique projection is the type of projection in which the process of sketching assembled block
diagrams having the X,Y & Z planes from arranged views/projections of orthographic projections
or the assembly of arranged orthographic views/elevations into 2D assembled block diagrams.
The 2D designs/drawings has one of the 3 planes projected at either 30°, 45° or 60° to the x axis.
Oblique projection is of 2 types: cavalier, and cabinet projection.

Figure 6: Oblique projection: cavalier, and cabinet projections

In cavalier projection, one of the 3 planes is drafted to represent a plane of an object “according to
a given scale”, while in cabinet projection, one of the 3 planes is drafted to represent half of a plane
of an object “according to half of a given scale”. A scale is any ratio (examples: 1:10, 1:100,
1:1000, etc.) of the size of an object on paper to the actual size of the same object in real life.

Figure 7: Oblique projection with orthographic views

5. .

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3.18 Isometric drawing on AutoCAD
AutoCAD has a command called ISODRAFT which allows you to easily draw at a 30 degree
angle as needed for an isometric drawing. You can switch between the three 'isoplanes' (top, right,
left) by using this command or by pressing the F5 key. Newer versions of AutoCAD have an
Isoplane icon on the status bar.
AutoCAD has an isometric drawing mode that lets you drawing 3D-looking objects in 2D just like
when you draw 3D objects on a flat sheet of paper. This means that even AutoCAD LT can draw
3D representations

3.18.1 Isometric planes

Isometric planes are basically increments of 30 degrees.When you create an isometric drawing,
"vertical" lines stay vertical, but "horizontal" lines are drawn at either 30 degrees or 150 degrees
to give the impression of depth to the drawing. Here's an isometric "cube": It has a 3D appearance,
but really it's just 2D lines

It has a 3D appearance, but really it's just 2D lines.

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Now, you could do this by setting your polar tracking increment angle to 30, but that would let
you snap to non-isometric angles like 60 and 120. You could also manually set individual polar
tracking angles, but you'd have to take them off manually when you were done.
So instead, you can use the "Snap type" setting of the Snap and Grid tab of the Drafting Settings
dialog box. (To find it, right-click on any status bar icon and choose "Settings".)

Set it to Grid, Isometric, and close the dialog. You don't have to turn on the grid or snap.
Suddenly, your cursor changes. One of the axes is still vertical, but the other is aligned at a 150-
degree angle, and it's changed colors.

When you turn Ortho on, you'll see that a "horizontal" line is now at 150 degrees instead of 0.

This cursor mode is called "isoplane left". It's "left" because it's lined up with the left side of an
isometric "cube". The other available isoplanes are "right" and "top". To switch between them,
press F5.

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With the help of isometric snap and ortho, you can quickly draw in any of the three isometric
planes. To get your regular, square cursor back again, change the snap type back to Rectangular.
How do you draw an isometric circle in Autocad?
1. Click Tools menu Drafting Settings.
2. In the Drafting Settings dialog box, Snap and Grid tab, under Snap Type, select Isometric
Snap.
3. Click OK.
4. Click Draw Ellipse Axis, End.
5. Enter i (Isocircle).
6. Specify the center of the isocircle.
7. Specify the radius or diameter of the isocircle
The following commands and features are the most commonly used ones to maintain precision in
isometric drawings:
 Polar tracking and direct distance entry
 Object snaps and grid snaps
 Object snap tracking
 Move and Copy
 Trim and Extend
Tip: When creating 2D isometric drawings, create reference geometry of different colors. This
method is particularly useful when constructing ellipses to represent fillets.

3.18.2 Isometric Circles, Arcs, and Fillets

When drawing on isometric planes, use ellipses to represent circles. The easiest way to draw an
ellipse with the correct shape is to use the Isocircle option of the ELLIPSE command. The
Isocircle option is available only when an isometric plane is active, which is controlled by the
ISODRAFT command or the SNAPSTYL system variable.

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Use isocircles for arcs, fillets, and any other radial curve, trimming and extending them to other
edges. Isocircles correctly represent cylinders or holes that are parallel to an isometric axis, and
their silhouette edges are always parallel to an isometric axis

Note: To represent concentric circles, draw another ellipse with the same center rather than
offsetting the original ellipse. Offsetting produces oval-shaped splines that do not represent the
foreshortened distances that you would expect.
Isometric Grid and Grid Snap
When you switch from orthographic to isometric drawing, the grid and grid snap will change
from a rectangular pattern to a diamond pattern corresponding to the isometric angles. In
addition, the grid lines will change to grid dots, and the grid and grid snap distances will also be
adjusted. When you turn off isometric drawing, your grid settings will be restored.

3.18.3 Placing your Dimensions and Text on Isometric drawings

Setting up the TEXT STYLES

There are two setting that need to be done to achieve the correct angles off the text.
1. TWO TEXT STYLE must be created one with the OBLIQUE ANGLE set to 30 and the
other style with the OBLIQUE ANGLE set to -30 (negative 30).
2. When in the MTEXT Command After the FIRST PICK on the Screen the ROTATION
needs to be defined to either 30, -30 (negative 30) or 90. *Unfortunately this step needs to
be done every time the MTEXT is accessed as the Rotation option seems not to stay as
most other options do.
Set the Oblique Angle in the Text Style Dialog Box.

Set the Rotation within the MTEXT Command.

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The OBLIQUED TEXT STYLE needs to be defined first as this Text Style will be used as the
Dimension Text Style.

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3.18.4 Setting Up the Dimension Styles in Isometric Drawings

1. Create a NEW DIMENSION STYLE and associate an Isometric Text Styles in the Text Tab
of the Dimension Style Manager. Multiple Dimension Styles are needed only because the
Isometric Text Styles previous created will need to be associated to those different Dimension
Styles. Name these styles accordingly so it will be easy to select the desired style later.

2. When Placing the Isometric Dimensions

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a. Select the appropriate Dimension Style – place the dimension into the drawing.
b. Select the Oblique Icon (located in the Annotate Tab / Dimension Panel drop down.) Select
the Dimension / Enter / type in the needed Angle. 30, 90, 150, 330.

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Three Isometric options (Left, Top, Right) to switch the cross hairs to a different plane CTRL +
E, F5 or even simpler select the down arrow at the Isodraft Icon in the Status Bar.

3.19 AutoCAD Blocks

In AutoCAD, a block is a collection of objects that are combined into a single named object. The
following are some sample blocks at various scales.

Some of these blocks are realistic representations of objects, some are symbols, and one of them
is an architectural title block for a D-size drawing.

3.19.1 Benefits of Blocks

Lessen Repetitive Tasks

CAD Blocks are essential when users require utilizing an element numerous times in a drawing.
Not only during the initial object creation blocks save time but when the revisions are needed it
also can save your time

Exactness
Assuming that you are starting with an accurate CAD block, the usage of that identical CAD

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element or block for the duration of a drawing or version guarantees consistency, getting rid of
potential errors that may come from having to redraw the object whenever. On the other hand,
while designing with complicated elements, being able to download the component or model you
need immediately from a producer or dealer indicates that you have accurate length and
specification facts to apply to your layout.

Reduced File Sizes

File size is decreased by instancing content in place of redefining object data for every instance a
block is used. Your CAD program only should consists of the insertion point and rotation,
reusing the object geometry from the original block. This can make an enormous differentiation
in performance during big projects’ working phase.

Preserve Uniformity
Drawings and models that are containing a set of CAD standards are being presented in a brief
and consistent way. There is a vital aspect that can enhance the efficiency and diminish the
probable errors in your drawings. Therefore you should have title blocks, plumbing fixtures and
fasteners regularly from one drawing to another drawing irrespective of CAD users’ category.

Metadata information consisting blocks are called attributes. Perhaps this may be information
like title block information, asset tracking numbers, or manufacturer information such as part
number, model or weight. This data can be connected to an excel database and extracted for
reports, bills of material and schedules formation.

3.19.2 Usage of CAD blocks

With the help of AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT software, CAD users can create their own CAD
blocks or choose from a large library of pre-installed blocks, including:

 Appliances
 Doors and windows
 Electronic symbols
 Electrical fixtures
 Fasteners
 Furniture
 Plumbing fixtures
 Restaurant equipment

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  You can insert them again and again, saving time. In fact, you can insert them into other
drawings as well.
 A block uses less electronic space than individual objects, so your drawing file is smaller.
 By updating a block’s definition, you can update all the blocks in the drawing

Note: Dynamic blocks are blocks that have added parameters that function in certain defined
ways. Look at the end of this post for links to some posts on dynamic blocks.

1. Draw the objects that you want in the block.

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 2. Choose Home tab> Block panel> Create to start the BLOCK command. The Block
Definition dialog box opens.
3. Type a name in the Name text box. The name can have spaces.
4. You need to specify a base point. That’s the point at which you’ll insert the block. In the
Base Point section, click Pick Point. Be sure to use an object snap for accuracy! You’ll
immediately be returned to the dialog box.
5. In the Objects section, click the Select Objects button. Select the objects and press Enter
to return to the dialog box. Tip: You can select the objects before using the command
and they’ll show up in the dialog box.
6. Just below, choose Retain, Convert to Block, or Delete. These options control what
happens after you create the block.
7. In the Behavior section, you can make a block Annotative (more info here), force it to
scale uniformly and choose whether to allow exploding.

In the Settings area, choose the block unit. You can choose Unitless but if you choose a unit,
AutoCAD will try to scale the block appropriately when you insert it into another drawing. You
can also add a hyperlink if you want.

8. Finally, you can add a description in the Description box. A description is helpful in the
DesignCenter, when you want to insert the block from another drawing.
9. Click OK to complete the box. If you chose Delete, the objects disappear. You can use
the OOPS command to bring them back

3.19.2.1 Create a Block Definition

Instead of creating a drawing file to be inserted as a block, you might want to create a block
definition directly in your current drawing. Use this method if you do not plan to insert the block
into any other drawing. In that case, use the BLOCK command to create the block definition.

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For example, this is how you could create a module for a cubicle design.

1. Create the objects for the block.

2. Start the BLOCK command.
3. Enter a name for the block, in this case Quad-Cube.
4. Select the objects that you created for the block (click 1 and 2).
5. Specify the block insertion point.

After creating the block definition, you can insert, copy, and rotate the block as needed.

Using the EXPLODE command, you can explode a block back to its component objects if you
need to make changes. In the illustration below, the cubicle on the right was exploded and
modified.
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Note: You can create block definitions that include one or more attributes that store and display
information. The command that you would use is ATTDEF. Typically, attributes include data
such as part number, name, cost, and date. You can export block attribute information to a table
or to an external file.

Recommendations

There are several different schemes for saving and retrieving block definitions.
 You can create an individual drawing file for each block that you intend to use. You save
these drawing files in folders, each of which would contain a family of related drawing
files.
 You can include the block definitions for title blocks and common symbols in your
drawing template files to make them available immediately when starting a new drawing.
 You can create several drawing files, which are sometimes called block library drawings.
Each of these drawings contains a family of related block definitions. When you insert a
block library drawing into your current drawing, all the blocks that are defined in that
drawing become available

3.19.2.2 To Save a Block as a Drawing File/Block Library Creation

Select a block in your current drawing.

Click Insert tab Block Definition panel(The Write Block tool is available from the same
drop-down as the Create Block tool) Write Block or TypewblockAt the Command line,
2. Create a folder, name it block library
3. In the Write Block dialog box, the Block option is already selected, so under Destination,
enter a file name and path to folder created above for the new drawing, or click the [...]
button to display a standard file selection dialog box.
4. Click OK.

A new drawing is created from the objects in the selected block.

Note: If you start Write Block without first selecting a block, click the Block option in the Write
Block dialog box, and select a block from the drop-down list.

3.19.2.3 To Save a Copy of a Block with a New Name (Block Editor)

Click Insert tab Block Definition panel Block Editor.
Click Block Editor tab Open/Save panel Save Block As.
In the Save Block As dialog box, enter a name for the new block definition. Click OK. To save
the block definition in the drawing, click Application menu Save

3.19.2.4 Inserting a Block

Typically, each of these blocks is an individual drawing file, perhaps saved in a folder with
similar drawing files. When you need to insert one into your current drawing file, you use the
INSERT command (or enter I in the Command window).

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The first time you insert the drawing as a block, you need to click Browse to locate the drawing
file. Make sure you organize your blocks into easy-to-find folders.

Once inserted, the block definition is stored in your current drawing. From then on, you can
choose it from the Name drop-down list without needing to click the Browse button.

Tip: The default settings in the Insert dialog box are usually acceptable. After you choose the
block name, click OK, and then specify its location in your drawing. You can rotate it later, if
necessary.

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Notice that when you insert a block, it is attached to your cursor at the point indicated. This
location is called the insertion point. By default, the insertion point is the origin point (0,0) of the
original drawing.

After inserting the block, you can select it and a grip appears. You can easily move and rotate
this block using this grip.

In the following example, a drawing file is inserted into the current drawing to provide a
standard detail view.

Note: Inserting a drawing file as a block provides a static reference to the specified drawing. For
a reference that automatically updates, you can attach the drawing with the External References
palette (XREF command) instead.

3.19.3 Block Attributes

An attribute is a label or tag that attaches data to a block. Examples of data that might be
contained in an attribute are part numbers, prices, comments, and owners' names.

The following illustration shows a "chair" block with four attributes: type, manufacturer, model,
and cost. Because the tags were set up as variables, specific information about each instance
could be added for each inserted block reference.

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Attribute information extracted from a drawing can be used in a spreadsheet or database to
produce a parts list or a bill of materials. You can associate more than one attribute with a block,
provided that each attribute has a different tag.

When you define an attribute, you specify

 A unique tag that identifies the attribute by name

 A prompt that can be displayed as the block is inserted
 A default value that is used if a variable value is not entered at the prompt

If you plan to extract the attribute information for use in a parts list, you might want to keep a list
of the attribute tags you create. You will need this tag information later when you create the
attribute template file.

Note: It is important to make sure that attribute tags have unique names. The Enhanced Attribute
Editor will display any duplicate tags in red. Duplicate tags will cause problems when extracting
data or if you use them in dynamic blocks.

3.19.3.1 Attribute modes

Attribute modes control the behavior of attributes in blocks. For example, you can control

 Whether an attribute is visible or invisible in the drawing. An invisible attribute is not

displayed or plotted; however, the attribute information is stored in the drawing file and
can be written to an extraction file for use in a database program.
 Whether an attribute is constant or variable. Whenever you insert a block that has a
variable attribute, you are prompted to enter data to be stored with the block. Blocks can
also use constant attributes whose values do not change. Constant attributes do not
prompt you for a value when you insert the block.
 Whether the attribute can be moved relative to the rest of the block. You can use grips to
change the position of an attribute without redefining the block. To prevent this
movement, you can lock the position of the attribute relative to the other objects in the
block.

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  Whether the attribute is a single-line attribute or a multiple-line attribute. Unlike single-
line attributes (which are limited to 255 characters), multiple-line attributes provide
enhanced formatting options.
Note: When a drawing is saved to a legacy AutoCAD-based product (2007 and earlier), a
multiple-line attribute is converted to several single-line attributes. If the drawing file is
reopened in a later release, the multiple-line attributes are restored.
3.19.3.2 Attach Attributes to Blocks
After you create one or more attribute definitions, you attach them to a block by including them
in the selection set when you define or redefine that block.
To use several attributes together, define them and then include them in the same block. For
example, you can define attributes tagged "Type," "Manufacturer," “Model,” and “Cost,” and
then include them in a block called CHAIR.

Usually, the order of the attribute prompts is the same as the order in which you selected the
attributes when you created the block. However, if you used crossing or window selection to
select the attributes, the order of the prompts is the reverse of the order in which you created
attributes. You can use the Block Attribute Manager to change the order in which you are
prompted for attribute information when you insert the block reference.

When you open a block definition in the Block Editor, you can use the Attribute Order dialog
box (BATTORDER command) to change the order in which you are prompted for attribute
information when you insert the block reference.

3.19.3.3 Use Attributes Without Attaching Them to Blocks

Stand-alone attributes can also be created. Once attributes have been defined, and the drawing is
saved, this drawing file can be inserted into another drawing. When the drawing is inserted, you
are prompted for the attribute values.

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3.19.3.4 Creating an attribute definition for storing data in a block.

1. Click Drafting tab > Block panel > Define Attribute.

2. In the Attribute Definition dialog box, set the attribute modes and enter tag information,
location, and text options.
o Attribute tag name. This tag can contain any characters except spaces or
exclamation marks (!). Lowercase letters are automatically changed to uppercase.
o Attribute Prompt. This specifies the prompt that is displayed when you insert a
block containing this attribute definition. If you press Enter, the attribute tag is
used as the prompt.

Note: If you do not enter a prompt, the attribute tag is used as a prompt. If you
select Constant in the Attribute Options area under Advanced Options, the Prompt
option is not available.

o Default Attribute Value. This specifies the default attribute value. The default
attribute value appears when a block is inserted into your drawing.
3. Click Save
4. Create or redefine a block (BLOCK). When you are prompted to select objects for the
block, include the attribute in the selection set.

To use several attributes together, define them and then include them in the same block.

4 SAMPLE EXERCISES
1.Draw the following diagram using the absolute coordinate system.(NB Dynamic Input should
be OFF)
1. Type LINE and Press Enter
2. Type 9,9 and Press Enter
3. Type 25,9 and Press Enter
4. Type 20,17 Press Enter
5. Type 14,17 Press Enter
6. Type 9,9 And Press Enter
7. Press Esc

2.Draw the following diagram using the absolute coordinate system.(NB Dynamic Input should
be OFF)

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2.Design the following diagrams using the absolute coordinate and the polar systems.(NB
Dynamic Input should be OFF)

2.Draw the following diagrams using the modify commands and the 2-D geometry figures

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The Polygon on the left side of the image is a 6 side polygon circumscribed about a circle of
R=20 and the Polygon on the right is a 5 side polygon inscribed in a circle of R=15. (illustrated
on the image using the dashed red circle)
All fillet are R=10 units

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c.

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The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view, side view and the top
view using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side
view

A B
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The Figure below shows an isometric diagram. Sketch the front view and the top view and the
side view using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side
view

B A
The Figure below shows an assembled drawing block diagram. Sketch the front view, side view
and the top view using the 1st angle projection taking direction labeled FV as the front and SV
as the side view

The Figure using the first angle below shows an isometric view of a model. Sketch the front
view , top view and side view and projection taking direction labeled FV as the front side and
SV as side view

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The Figure below shows an isometric view of a model. Sketch the top view front view & side
view and using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side
view

The Figure below shows an isometric view of a model. Sketch the B top view front view & side
view and using the first angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side
view

B
A
The Figure below shows an isometric view of a model. Sketch the top view front view & side
view and using the third angle projection taking direction labeled A as the front and B as the side
view

A B
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