MIDTERM

CEHWRD330
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
1. Simple Curves
- also known as a circular curve, which is the most common type of horizontal curve used when a
gradual change in direction is required in a horizontal plane.
- It consists of a single arc of a circle connecting two straight lines with a radius of the same
magnitude throughout.

PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.

PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents, also called vertex
T = Tangent Distance. It is the length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT.
Note: Tangents from an external point of a circle is equal
R = Radius of the curve
L = Length of chord from PC to PT, also known as long chord.
Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
M = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.
I = Angle of intersection, also called central angle. Note: an angle formed by a tangent and a
chord is measured by one half its intecepted arc.
x = offset distance from tangent to the curve.
Note: x is perpendicular to T.
θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve.
D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal to one station.
In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station is equal to 20 m.
Minimum Radius of Curvature
- Vehicle traveling on a horizontal curve may either skid or overturn off the road due to
centrifugal force.
- Side friction f and superelevation e are the factors that will stabilize this force.
- The superelevation e = tan θ and the friction factor f = tan ϕ.
- The minimum radius of curve so that the vehicle can round the curve without skidding is
determined as follows.
For the above formula, v must be in meter per second (m/s) and R in meter (m).
For v in kilometer per hour (kph) and R in meter, the following convenient formula is being used.

Using the above formula, R must be in meter (m) and v in kilometer per hour (kph).

SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1

The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'. Compute the radius if the external
distance is 12.02 m.
Solve for the following
1. Radius of the Curve
2. Length of Tangent
3. Middle Ordinate
4. Length of Chord
5. Length of Curve
6. Station of PT if PC is located at Station
2+060
SEATWORK:
The offset distance of the simple curve from the PT to the tangent line passing through the PC is
equal to 120.20m. The stationing of PC is at 2+540.26. The simple curve has an angle of
intersection of 50°.
a. Compute the degree of curve
b. Compute the the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the long chord
joining the point of curvature and point of tangency.
c. Find the nearest distance from the midpoint of the curve to the point of intersection of the
tangents
d. Compute the stationing of a point on the curve which intersects with the line making a
deflection angle of 8° with the tangent through the PC.
2.COMPOUND CURVES
- consist of two or more simple curves in succession, turning in the
same direction, with any two successive curves having a common
tangent point.
- A curve made up of two or more circular arcs of successively shorter
or longer radii, joined tangentially without reversal of curvature, and
used on some railroad tracks and highways as an easement curve to
provide a less abrupt transition from tangent to full curve or vice versa.

3. REVERSED CURVES
- usually consist of two simple curves with equal radii turning in opposite directions with a
common tangent.
- They are generally used to change the alignment of a highway.
- Reversed curve, though pleasing to the eye, would bring discomfort to motorist running at
design speed.
- The instant change in direction at the PRC (Point of Reversed Curvature) brought some safety
problems.
- Despite this fact, reversed curves are being used with great success on park roads, formal
paths, waterway channels, and the like.

4. SPIRAL CURVES
- Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change in curvatureand superelevation that occurs
between tangent and circular curve.
- The spiral curve is used to gradually change the curvature and
superelevation of the road, thus called transition curve.

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
- The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections known as grades, connected
by vertical curves.
- The design of the vertical alignment therefore involves the selection of suitable grades for the
tangent sections and the appropriate length of vertical curves.
- The topography of the area through which the road traverses has a significant impact on the
design of the vertical alignment.
Vertical curves
- are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that vehicles
may run smoothly as they traverse the highway.
- These curves are usually parabolic in shape.
- The expressions developed for minimum lengths of vertical curves are therefore based
on the properties of a parabola.

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
1. SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES
2. UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES
3. REVERSED VERTICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

1. SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

- In highway practice, abrupt change in vertical direction of moving vehicles should be avoided.
- In order to provide gradual change in its vertical direction, a parabolic verical curve is adopted
on account of its slope which varies at constant rate with respect to horizontal distances.
- In this section, symmetrical parabolic curve does not necessarily mean the curve is
symmetrical at L/2, it simply means that the curve is made up of single vertical parabolic curve.
- Using two or more parabolic curves placed adjacent to each other is called unsymmetrical
parabolic curve.

Properties of Vertical Parabolic Curves:

1 . The vertical offset from the tangent to the curve are proportional to the squares of
the distances from the point of tangency.

2. The curve bisects the distance between the vertex and the midpoint of the long chord

3. If the algebraic difference in the ratio of grade of the two slopes is positive, that is (g1-
g2), we have a “summit” curve but if it is negative, we have a “sag” curve.

4. The length of curve of a parabolic vertical curve, refers to the horizontal distance from
the P.C. to the P.T.

5. The stationing of vertical parabolic curves is measured not along the curve but along
the horizontal line.

6. For a symmetrical parabolic curve, the number of stations to the left must be equal to
the number of stations to the right, of the intersection of the slopes or forward and
backward tangent.

7. The slope of the parabola varies uniformly along the curve, as shown by
differentiating the equation of the parabolic curve.

8. The maximum offset H=1/8 the product of the algebraic difference between
the two rates of grade and the length of curve:

9. Location of the highest point of the curve from the PC:

10. Location of the highest point of the curve from the PT:

11. rise = run × slope

12. vertical distance = area under the grade diagram

2. UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

- A vertical highway curve is at times designed to include a particular elevation at a
certain station where the grades of the forward and backwards tangents have already
been established.
- It is therefore necessary to use acurve with unequal tangents or a compound curve
which is usually called “unsymmetrical”or asymmetrical parabolic curvewhere one
parabola extends fromthe P.C. to a point directly below the vertex and a second parabola
which extends from this point to the P.I.
- In order to make the entire curve smooth and continuous, the two parabolas are so
constructed so that they will have a common tangent at the point where they joined,
that is at a point directly below the vertex.
Considering triangles AVD and
ABC:

Solving for L1 :

Applying the square property of parabola, in solving for the vertical offsets of the
parabola:

Location of the highest or lowest point of the curve from the P.C. when
Location of the highest or lowest point of the curve From the P.T. when

3. REVERSED VERTICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

Reverse vertical parabolic curves usually consist of two parabolic curves turning in
opposite directions with a common tangent.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RAILWAYS AND PAVEMENTS

IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

- The structural design of railways and pavements is crucial for ensuring safety, efficiency, and
durability in transportation systems.
- Welldesigned structures can minimize maintenance costs, improve performance, and extend
the lifespan of infrastructure.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RAILWAYSRAILWAY STRUCTURE

- Railway structures encompass a wide array of construction intended to support the track itself
or house railway operations.
- Railway structures primarily consist of track components that support trains as they travel.
- The design must accommodate the various loads and stresses imposed by train operations

BRIDGE DECK
- portion of a railway bridge that supplies a means of carrying the track rails.
2 GENERAL TYPES OF BRIDGE DECK
1. OPEN BRIDGE DECK
- The rails are anchored directly to timber bridge ties supported directly on the floor system of
the superstructure.
2. BALLASTED BRIDGE
- The rails are anchored directly National to timber track ties supported in the ballast section.

TRACK COMPONENTS
1. RAILS
- Typically made from high-carbon steel, rails are designed to withstand bending, wear, and
fatigue.
- Rail profiles are designed to optimize strength and reduce wear.
2. SLEEPERS (TIES)
- Sleepers are horizontal members that support the rails.
- Common materials include concrete, wood, and steel.
- The spacing and design of sleepers are critical for load distribution and stability.
3. BALLAST
- Ballast consists of crushed stone or gravel that provides stability, drainage, and load
distribution.
- Proper ballast depth and gradation are essential for effective performance.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
- Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and rigidity of
structures.
- The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure capable of
resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life.

Structural Design Process

1. PLANNING
- This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting the general
layout and dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or perhaps several
alternative types of structure, which offer the best general solution.
2. DESIGN
- This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in the planning
phase and
results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions and details of the
structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative structural arrangement
being considered.
3. CONSTRUCTION
- This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and equipment,
including their transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection.

LOAD CONSIDERATIONS
1. STATIC LOADS
- are those that do not change over time, such as the weight of the rail and sleepers.
2. DYNAMIC LOADS
- generated by moving trains and can include factors such as acceleration, braking, and
centrifugal forces.
- These loads must be considered in the design to prevent structural failures.

THE GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF A RAILWAY TRACK

includes all those parameters which determine or affect the geometry of the track.
1. GRADIENTS
- Are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway track.
- A rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of the movement of traffic and
a down or
falling gradient is one in which the track loses elevation in the direction of the movement of
traffic.
- A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of one unit.
- Sometimes the gradient is indicated as percent rise or fall.
- For example, if there is a rise of 1 m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25%.

Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives.

(a) To reach various stations at different elevations
(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible
(c) To reduce the cost of earthwork.

Types of Gradients Used on the Railways

1. Ruling Gradient
- It is the steepest gradient that exists in a section
2. Pusher or Helper Gradient
- When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to necessitate the use of an extra
engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper gradient.
3. Momentum Gradient
- It is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train because of the
momentum it gathers while running on the section
4. Gradients in Station Yards
- To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the combined
effect of gravity and strong winds.
- To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent possible

Design Principles
1. Materials Selection
- High-strength materials are chosen to withstand the stresses experienced by the railway
structure.
- Durability and resistance to environmental factors (like corrosion) are essential
2. Design Standards and Codes
- Various international and national standards guide the design process (e.g., AASHTO, AREMA).
- These standards ensure safety, reliability, and consistency in design.

MAINTENANCE & REHABILITATION

- Regular inspections and maintenance activities are essential to extend the life of railway
infrastructure.
- Techniques such as rail grinding, sleeper replacement, and ballast cleaning are
commonly employed.

Structural Design of Pavements

PAVEMENTS
- A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials
above the natural soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads
to the sub-grade.
- Pavement structures are critical for supporting vehicular loads and providing a smooth driving
surface.

REQUIREMENTS OF A PAVEMENT
- Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade soil,
- Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
- Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
- Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
- Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
- Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
- Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
- Long design life with low maintenance cost.

SPECIAL SOIL TESTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
- This test is commonly known as the CBR test and involves the determination of the load-
deformation curve of the soil in the laboratory using the standard CBR testing equipment
- The objective of the test is to determine the relative strength of a soil with respect to
crushed rock, which is considered an excellent coarse base material.
- This is obtained by conducting a penetration test on the samples still carrying the simulated
load and using standard CBR equipment.
2. Hveem Stabilometer Test
- This test is used to determine the resistance value R of the soil and used to determine the
pavement thickness above the soil to carry the estimated traffic load.
- The procedure consists of three phases: determination of the exudation pressure,
determination of the expansion pressure, and determination of the resistance value R
(stabilometer test).
Exudation pressure is the compressive stress that will exude water from the compacted
specimen.
Expansion pressure indicates the load and therefore the thickness of material required
above the soil to prevent any swelling if the soil is inundated with water when used as
a subgrade material.
Resistance Value, R

TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
1. Flexible Pavement
- Flexible pavements usually consist of a bituminous surface underlaid with a layer of granular
material and a layer of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine materials.
- Will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the
points of contact in the granular structure.
High-type pavements have wearing surfaces that adequately support the expected
traffic load without visible distress due to fatigue and are not susceptible to weather
conditions.
Intermediate-type pavements have wearing surfaces that range from surface
treated to those with qualities just below that of hightype pavements.
Low-type pavements are used mainly for low-cost roads and have wearing surfaces
that range from untreated to loose natural materials to surface treated earth.

Structural Components of a Flexible PavementTypical Layers of a

Flexible Pavement
SEAL COAT
TACK COAT
PRIME COAT
SURFACE COURSE
BINDER COURSE
BASE COURSE
SUB-BASE COURSE
TOP SOIL

Types of Flexible Pavements

1. Conventional layered flexible pavement
- layered systems with high quality expensive materials are placed in the top where stresses are
high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.
2. Full - depth asphalt pavement
- are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the soil subgrade.
- This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not available.
3. Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM)
- are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers.
- Modified dense graded asphalt concrete placed above the sub-grade will significantly reduce
the vertical
compressive strain on soil subgrade and protect from surface water.

FAILURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

- The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking.
- The fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete.

TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
1. Rigid Pavement
- Rigid highway pavements are normally constructed of Portland cement concrete and may or
may not have a base course between the subgrade and the concrete surface.
- Properly designed and constructed rigid pavements have long service lives and usually are less
expensive to maintain than flexible pavements.

Types of Rigid Pavements

1. Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)
- are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced contraction joints.
- Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints.
- They normally have a joint spacing of 5 to 10m
2. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
- Although reinforcements do not improve the structural capacity significantly, they can
drastically increase the joint spacing.
- Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after cracks.
3. Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)
- Complete elimination of joints is achieved by reinforcement.
4. Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP)
- are designed and produced to be prestressed to bear tensile forces caused by external loads by
various live objects such as vehicles on the roads or aircraft in the airports.

FAILURE OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

- Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid
pavement design.
- The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio
between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture

SOIL STABILIZATION
- is the treatment of natural soil to improve its engineering properties.

CHEMICAL STABILIZATION
- is the process of modifying the chemical makeup of soil by adding different additions such as
lime, cement, or fly ash, or by adding compounds such as polymers, resins, and enzymes

The procedure for stabilizing soils with cement involves:

- Pulverizing the soil
- Mixing the required quantity of cement with the pulverized soil
- Compacting the soil cement mixture
- Curing the compacted layer Asphalt Stabilization

AASHTO Design Method

- The AASHTO method for design of highway pavements is based primarily on the results of the
AASHTO road test that was conducted in Ottawa, Illinois

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
- Pavement performance
- Traffic
- Roadbed soils (subgrade material)
- Materials of construction
- Environment
- Drainage
- Reliability