ENGINEERING SURVEYS

1. HIGHWAY DESIGN PREPARATION

1.1 Survey Type Application

Route surveys – are surveys made for the purpose of locating any building, highways,
canals, power transmission lines, pipe lines, railways, rapid transit and other utilities
which are constructed for purpose of transportation or communications; Surveys are
required for all types of route alignment, planning, design and construction work.

Operations in Route Surveying

1. Reconnaissance – a rapid surveys which the use of the ordinary instrument that will
serve as a guide in selecting the route to be taken.
a. General routes are selected and horizontal and vertical controls are established.
b. Reconnaissance report is made accompanying a reconnaissance map.
2. Preliminary Surveys – a survey made which the ordinary surveying instruments, the
purpose of which is to fix and mark on the ground the first trial route and to collect
data upon which the final location may be made.
a. There are survey parties that execute this phase of work.
• Transit Party – runs the traverse.
• Level Party – sets the bench works and determines the profile.
• Topographic Party – runs the cross-sectional work
b. Preliminary map is prepared for determination of possible cost of the project.
3. Location Survey
a. Five survey teams go out in the field.
• Transit Party – states the location of the circular curves with proper stationing.
• Level Party – checks the selected bench mark and execute the profile work.
• Cross-Section Party – slope stakes are set on the ground
• Land line Party – property lines and other important details are indicated on the
plane
• Special Teams – take care of special surveys for structures.
b. All survey works are consolidated with the following prepared:
• Location map
• Location profile
• Cross sections
• Earthwork estimates
• Right of way maps
• Structural maps and plans
4. Construction Surveys
a. Slope stakes for construction works are staked spirals are land, lines grades for tract
or pavement are defined.
b. Final plans are prepared, profile sections as revised during construction.

2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

2.1 Introduction
As a highway changes in a horizontal direction, turning to change the vehicle direction at the
point of intersection between the two straight lines is not feasible. The change in direction
would be too abrupt and too risky for the safety of modern high-speed vehicles. It necessary
to interpose a curve between the straight lines. Curves occur at locations where two

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roadways intersect, providing a gradual transition between the two. The straight lines of a
road are called tangents, because the lines are tangent to the curves used to change direction.
Horizontal Curves are one of the two important transition elements in geometric design for
highways. A horizontal curve provides a transition between two tangent strips of roadway,
allowing a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut. The design of
the curve is dependent on the intended design speed for the roadway, as well as other factors
including drainage and friction. These curves are semicircles as to provide the driver with a
constant turning rate with radii determined by the laws of physics surrounding centripetal
force.

2.2 Useful Geometric Theorems

In the study of curves, the following geometric principles should be emphasized.
1. An inscribed angle is measured by one-half its intercepted arc.

1
∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵
2

2. Inscribed angles having the same or equal intercepted arcs are equal.

1
∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵
2

3. An angle formed by a tangent and a chord is measured by one-half its intercepted arc.

1
∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶
2

4. If two tangents are drawn on a circle and they cross, the lengths of the two tangents (from
the point where they touch the circle to the point where they cross) will be the same.

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𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐵

5. Angles whose sides are perpendicular each to other are either equal or supplementary.

∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐹𝐸𝐷

2.3 Degree of Curvature

Curvature may be expressed by simply stating the length of the radius of the curve. Stating
the radius is a common practice in land surveying and in the design of urban roads. For
highway and railway work, however, curvature is expressed by the degree of curve. Two
definitions are used for the degree of curve. These definitions are discussed in the following
sections.

1. Arc Definition/Basis - The arc definition is most frequently used in highway design states
that the degree of curve is the central angle formed by two radii that extend from the center
of a circle to the ends of an arc measuring 20 meters long. Therefore, if you take a sharp
curve, mark off a portion so that the distance along the arc is exactly 20 m and determine
that the central angle is 2°, then you have a curve for which the degree of curvature is 2°; it is
referred to as a 2° curve. We can use ratio and proportion in order to get the degree of
curvature.

𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑅 20 𝑚
= =
1 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 360° 𝐷°

3600 1145.916
𝐷= =
𝜋𝑅 𝑅

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2. Chord Definition/Basis - The chord definition is used in railway practice and in some
highway work. This definition states that the degree of curve is the central angle formed by
two radii drawn from the center of the circle to the ends of a chord 20 m long. If you take a
flat curve, mark a 100-foot chord, and determine the central angle to be 0°30’, then you have
a 30-minute curve (chord definition).

𝐷 20 𝑚 / 2
sin =
2 𝑅
10
𝐷 = 2𝑅 sin!" D E
𝑅

2.4 Types of Horizontal Curves

1. Simple Curve - When a curve consists of a single arc with a constant radius connecting the
two tangents, it is said to be a circular or simple curve.

2. Compound Curve - When a curve consists of two or more arcs with different radii, it is
called a compound curve. Such a curve lies on the same side of a common tangent and the
centers of the different arcs lie on the same side of their respective tangents.

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3. Reverse Curve - A reverse curve consists of two arcs bending in opposite directions. Their
centers lie on opposite sides of the curve. Their radii may be either equal or different, and
they have one common tangent.

4. Spiral Curve - A curve of variable radius as a transition curve. It is also called a transition
curve or easement curve. In railways, such as a curve is provided on both sides of a circular
curve to minimize superelevation. Excessive superelevation may cause wear and tear of the
rail section and discomfort to passengers.

2.5 Simple Curve

A simple curve is a circular arc, extending from one tangent to the next. The point where the
curve leaves the first tangent is called the “point of curvature” (P.C) and the point where the
curve joins the second tangent is called the point of tangency (P.T). The P.C and P.T are often
called tangent points. If the tangent be produced, they will meet in a point of intersection
(P.I). The distance from the P.I to the P.C or P.T is called “tangent distance”. The distance
from the P.I to the curve is called the “external distance” (measured towards the center of
curvature). While the line adjoining the middle of the curve and the middle of the chord line
adjoining P.C and P.T is called the “middle ordinate”. Solving a simple curve is analyzed by
simple geometric and trigonometric principles.

Elements of a Simple Curve:

1. Point of curvature (PC) – the point where the curve leaves the first tangent; sometimes
this point is called TC or tangent to curve.
2. Point of tangency (PT) – the point where the curve joints the second tangent; sometimes
called CT or curve to tangent.

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3. Vertex (V) – the point of intersection of the tangents; also called PI or point of
intersection.
4. Tangent distance (T) – the distance from the vertex to the PC or PT.
5. External distance (E) – the distance from the vertex to the middle of the curve.
6. Long chord (LC) – a straight line joining the PC and PT.
7. Middle ordinate (M) – the line joining the middle of the chord with the middle of the
curve.
8. Radius (R) – radius of the curve.
9. Angle of intersection (I) – the deflection angle between the tangents.
10. Degree of curve (D) – degree of curvature either based on arc or chord definition.
11. Sub-chord (C) – chord less than 1 full station.
12. Sub-angle (d) – angle at the center subtended by a sub-chord.
13. Length of curve (Lc) – total distance from the PC to PT.
14. Deflection angle of a point (θ) – the angle formed by the chord drawn from a point of
tangency to the point.
15. Offset Distance (X) – the perpendicular distance of a point from the tangent.

Elements of Simple Curve

Formulas:
1. Radius, R 2. Tangent Distance, T
From the derivation, Consider ∆PC-PI-O,
Arc Basis 𝐼 𝑇
1145.916 tan =
2 𝑅
𝑅= 𝐼
𝐷 𝑇 = 𝑅 tan
Chord Basis 2
𝐷
20 = 2𝑅 sin
2

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3. Length of curve, Lc 6. External Distance, E

From plane geometry (S = r 𝛳 or ratio Consider ∆PC-PI-O,
and proportion), 𝐼 𝑅
cos =
𝐿# = 𝑅 ∙ 𝐼$%& 2 𝑅+𝐸
𝜋 𝑅
𝐿# = 𝑅 ∙ T𝐼&'( U WX 𝑅+𝐸 =
180 $%& 𝐼
𝜋𝑅𝐼 cos
2
𝐿# = 𝐼
180 𝐸 = 𝑅 sec − 𝑅
2
𝐼
𝐸 = 𝑅 Dsec − 1E
2
4. Length of long chord, LC 7. Sub-angle, d
Consider ∆PC-n-O, By ratio and proportion,
𝐼 𝐿𝐶/2 𝑑" 𝐶"
sin = =
2 𝑅 𝐷 20 𝑚
𝐼 𝐶" 𝐷 𝐶) 𝐷
𝐿𝐶 = 2𝑅 sin 𝑑" = 𝑑) =
2 20 20
5. Middle Ordinate, M 8. Stationing of PC
Consider ∆PC-n-O, Sta PC = Sta PI – T
𝐼 𝑅−𝑀
cos =
2 𝑅
𝐼 9. Stationing of any point “a”
𝑅 cos = 𝑅 − 𝑀
2 Sta a = Sta PC + (Lc )PC to a
𝐼
𝑀 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos
2
𝐼 10. Stationing of PT
𝑀 = 𝑅 D1 − cos E
2 Sta PT = Sta PC + Lc

Note:
1. In route surveying, azimuth is measured from the south.
2. To obtain 𝑐1 think of a station (divisible by 20, greater than sta. PC) wherein if subtracted
to sta. PC, its value must be less than 20; also, to obtain 𝑐2 think of a station (divisible by 20,
less than sta. PT) wherein if you subtract it to sta. PT, its value must be less than 20.

2.5.1 Simple Curve: Examples

Problem 1 Two tangents of a simple curve have azimuths of 248°15’ and 294°30’ are
connected by a 4.2° curve. If sta. PI is at 7 + 196.25, compute all the elements of the curve.

Problem 2 The deflection angle of two intermediate points A & B of a simple curve are
3°15’and 8°15’ respectively, from the PC. If the chord distance between A & B is 30 m. Find
the station of A & B if sta. PC is 4 + 120. Determine also the length of the curves from A to B.

Problem 3 A 3-degree curve has an angle of intersection of 24°. What is the length of the
long chord in m? Use chord basis.

Problem 4 A circular curve has the following data:

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Azimuth of back tangent = 205°

Azimuth of forward tangent = 262°
Middle ordinate, M = 5.8 m
Calculate the length of tangent distance.

Problem 5 From point A on a simple curve, the perpendicular distance to the tangent, at
point Q, is 64 m. The tangent passes through the P.C. The distance from Q to P.C. is 260 m.
Calculate the radius of the simple curve.

Problem 6 From the P.C., the deflection angles of two intermediate points A and B of a
simple curve are 3°15’ and 8°15’, respectively. The chord distance between A and B is 40 m
long. Find the length of curve from PC to A. Calculate also the length of the curve from the
P.C. to B.

Problem 7 What is the central angle of the curve whose radius is 200 m and the distance of
the midpoint of the curve to the P.I. is 14.20 m?

Problem 8 A 4-degree simple curve has an angle of intersection of 54°. The PC of the curve is
at station 34+523.
a. Determine the length of the long chord.
b. Determine the length of the curve.
c. Determine the station of the midpoint of the curve.

Problem 9 The deflection angle of the 20-m chord of a simple curve measures 2.65°. Find the
radius of the curve.

2.5.2 Curve Layout

Because of their long radii, most curves cannot be laid out by swinging an arc from the center
of the circle. They must be laid out by a series of straight. lines (chords). This is done by use
of transit and tape.

2.5.3 Deflection Angle Method

The deflection angle method is based on the fact that the angle between a tangent and a
chord, or between two chords that form an inscribed angle, is one-half the intercepted arc.
The angle formed by the tangent at the PC and a chord from the PC to a point 20 m along the
arc is equal to one- half the degree of curve. Likewise, the angle formed by this chord and a
chord from the PC to a point 20 m farther along the arc is also equal to one-half the degree of
curve. These angles are known as deflection angles. The deflection angle from the PC to the
PT is one-half the central angle I, which provides an important check in computing deflection
angles.

Problem 10 A 4-degree simple curve has an angle of intersection of 54°. The PC of the curve
is at station 34+523. Utilizing the 20-meter full station interval (if not provided), provide the
deflection angles for all points.

2.5.4 Transit Stations For Highway/Railway Locations

The starting positions of highways typically comprise a sequence of straight segments.
Curves are inserted later to connect two intersecting tangents. The original tangents are
chained from PI to PI, and deflection angles are measured. When curves are inserted, the
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original stations at PIs must be corrected. Stations of PCs and PTs must be computed by
considering distances along the curves and not along the tangents. Obviously, the total length
of the project will be less than the lengths of the tangents.

Problem 11 A preliminary highway location has been made. PI stations, deflection angles,
and the end of the line are shown in Table. (The beginning station is 0+000.)
Degree of curve for each curve has been selected. Stations for each PC and PT and the station
for the end of the line are to be computed.

P.I. Number Original Station Deflection angle Degree of Curve

1 0+373.15 21°28’ R 1°30’
2 0+948.64 40°56’ R 2°30’
3 1+581.87 22°12’ R 2°00’
end 1+998.18

2.6 Compound Curve

A compound curve consists of two or more consecutive simple curves having different
radius, but whose centers lie on the same side of the curve, likewise any two consecutive
curves must have a common tangent at their meeting point. In a compound curve, the point
of the common tangent where the two curves join is called the point of compound curvature
(P.C.C)

Elements of a Compound Curve:

1. PC = point of curvature
2. PT = point of tangency
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3. PI = point of intersection
4. PCC = point of compound curve
5. T1 = tangent distance of the first simple curve
6. T2 = tangent distance of the second simple curve
7. PI1 or V1 = point of intersection or vertex of the first curve
8. PI2 or V2 = point of intersection or vertex of the second curve
9. I1 = angle of intersection or the central angle of the first curve
10. I2 = angle of intersection or the central angle of the second curve
11. I = angle of intersection of the compound curve = I1 + I2
12. Lc1 = length of the first curvature
13. Lc2 = length of the second curvature
14. LC1 = length of long chord of the first curve
15. LC2 = length of long chord of the second curve
16. LC = length of long chord of the compound curve from PC to PT
17. T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from PI1 to PI2
18. 𝛳 = 180° – I
19. x and y can be found from triangle PI1-PI2-PI
20. TL = x + T1
21. Ts = y + T2
22. LC can be found from triangle PC-PCC-PT
23. Given the stationing of PC
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿#" + 𝐿#)
24. Given the stationing of PI
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑥 − 𝑇" + 𝐿#" + 𝐿#)
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑇* + 𝐿#" + 𝐿#)

𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑥 − 𝑇" 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿#" 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶𝐶 + 𝐿#)

Consider the triangle PI1-PI2-PI,

Sin law
𝑥 𝑇" + 𝑇) 𝑦
= =
sin 𝐼) sin(180° − 𝐼" − 𝐼) ) sin 𝐼"

Length of long chord of compound curve

Consider the triangle PC-PCC-PT,
cos law
𝐿𝐶 ) = (𝐿𝐶" )) + (𝐿𝐶) )) − 2(𝐿𝐶" )(𝐿𝐶) ) cos(180° − 𝑑∠" − 𝑑∠) )

2.6.1 Compound Curve: Examples

Problem 11 A compound curve has the following elements. I1 = 30 ,̊ D1 = 4 ,̊ I2 = 24 ,̊ and D2 =

5 .̊ If the stationing of the vertex is (4 + 620),
a. Determine the stationing of PC.
b. Find the stationing of PCC.
c. Determine the stationing of PT.

Problem 12 The chords of a compound curve from PC to PCC and from PCC to PT are 130.60
m and 139.16 m, respectively. Its common tangent makes an angle of 20° and 36°,
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respectively, with the tangents at PC and PT. Determine the length of the long chord of the
compound curve.

Problem 13 Given the following for compound curve:

Station
15+480.14
PT
I1 30°
I2 36°
D1 4°
D2 5°
Determine the stationing of PCC. Use arc basis.

Problem 14 Given the following data from compound curve: I1 = 18°, I2 = 23.5°, D1 = 2°, D2 =
4° and Sta PI = 42+089.60. Determine the stationing of PC. Use arc-basis.

Problem 15 A compound curve has the following data: I1 = 28°, I2 = 31°, D1 = 3°, D2 = 4° and
Sta PI = 30+120.50. Determine the stationing of PCC. Use arc-basis.

Problem 16 A compound curve has the following properties:

First curve’s central angle, I1 =32°

Length of long cord from PC to PCC, LC1 = 235.98 m
Second curve’s central angle, I2=24°
Length of long cord from PCC to PT, LC2 = 178.23 m

Find the length of long chord from PC to PT.

Problem 17 The length of the common tangent of a compound curve is 321 m. D1 = 2.5°, I1 =
36°, I2 = 62°. Find the degree of the second curve. Use arc basis.

Problem 18 A compound curve has a common tangent 520 m long. The first curve passing
through the PC is a 3-degree curve with a central angle of 50°. Determine the radius of the
second curve if its central angle is 35°.

2.6.2 Deflection Angle Method on Compound Curve

Problem 19 PC, PCC, and PT stations, deflection angles, and chord lengths are to be
computed from the following information.
PI = sta 0 + 474.34
I = 68°00’
I1 = 35°00’
R1 = 182.87 m
R2 = 121.91 m
Consider a full station interval of 30 meters. Prepare the field note for this highway.

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2.7 Reverse Curve

A reverse curve is formed by two circular simple curves having a common tangent but lies on
opposite sides. The method of laying out a reversed curve is just similar as the deflection
angle method of laying out simple curves. At the point where the curve reversed in its
direction is called the Point of Reverse Curvature (P.R.C)

Elements of a Reverse Curve:

1. PC = point of curvature
2. PT = point of tangency
3. PI = point of intersection
4. PRC = point of reverse curve
5. T1 = tangent distance of the first simple curve
6. T2 = tangent distance of the second simple curve
7. PI1 or V1 = point of intersection or vertex of the first curve
8. PI2 or V2 = point of intersection or vertex of the second curve
9. I1 = angle of intersection or the central angle of the first curve
10. I2 = angle of intersection or the central angle of the second curve
11. Lc1 = length of the first curvature
12. Lc2 = length of the second curvature
13. LC1 = length of long chord of the first curve
14. LC2 = length of long chord of the second curve
16. LC = length of long chord of the compound curve from PC to PT.
When dealing with parallel tangents, it is more common for the long chords of simple
curves to coincide in reverse curves. This is because parallel tangents often involve
similar or identical radii for both curves, making it easier to have a smooth transition
between them with coinciding long chords.
17. T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from PI1 to PI2
18. 𝛳 = angle of convergence for converging tangents
19. z = distance between the parallel tangents (back tangent of the first curve and forward
tangent of the second curve.
19. Given the stationing of PC
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿#" + 𝐿#)
24. Given the stationing of PI of the first curve (PI1),
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼" − 𝑇" + 𝐿#" + 𝐿#)

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𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼" − 𝑇" 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑅𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿#" 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿#)
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼) = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑅𝐶 + 𝑇)

2.7.1 Types of Reverse Curve

a. Reverse Curve with Non-Parallel Tangents

Consider the triangle formed by PI1, PI2 and the point of convergence (POC),
sin law:
𝑇" + 𝑇) 𝑃𝐼nnnnnnnnnnnnnn
) − 𝑃𝑂𝐶
nnnnnnnnnnnnnn
𝑃𝐼 " − 𝑃𝑂𝐶
= =
sin 𝜃 sin 𝐼" sin(180° − 𝐼) )
a.1 Equal radii
a.2 Unequal radii

b. Reverse Curve with Parallel Tangents

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Consider the given perpendicular distance between parallel tangents, z,

right triangle solution:
𝑧
sin 𝐼 =
𝑇" + 𝑇)
𝐼 𝑧 𝑧
sin D E = =
2 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶" + 𝐿𝐶)
b.1 Equal radii
b.2 Unequal radii

2.7.2 Reverse Curve: Examples

Problem 19 The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents of the reverse curve
is 35m. The azimuth of the back tangent is 270 ̊ while the common tangent is 300 .̊ The first
radius of the curve is 160 m and the stationing of PRC is (2 + 578). Determine the following:
a. Radius of the second curve.
b. Stationing of PCC.
c. Stationing of PT.

Problem 20 The common tangent BC of a reverse curve is 280.5 m and has a bearing of S
47°31’ E. AB is the tangent of the first curve whose bearing is N 72°45’ E. CD is the tangent of
the second curve whose bearing is N 38°13’E. A is at the P.C. while D is at the P.T. The radius
of the first curve is 180 m. The P.I. of the first curve is at STA 12+523.37. Find the stationing
of the P.T.

Problem 21 The common tangent of a reverse curve is 280.5 m and has an azimuth of
312°29’. BC is a tangent of the first curve whose azimuth is 252°45’. DE is a tangent of the
second curve whose azimuth is 218°13’. The radius of the first curve is 180 m. PI1 is at STA
16+523.37. B is at P.C. What is the stationing of PI2?

Problem 22 Two tangents converged at an angle of 30°. The two direction of the second
tangent is due east. The perpendicular distance of the PC from the second tangent is 116.50
m. The bearing of the common tangent is S 40° E.
a. Compute the central angle of the first curve.
b. If a reverse curve is to connect these two tangents, determine the common radius of
the curve.
c. Compute the stationing of the PT if PC is at station 10+620.

Problem 23 A reverse curve has the following properties:

Degree of curve, D1 3°
Central angle, I1 24°
Degree of curve, D2 4°
Central angle, I2 38°
Stationing of PC 67+345.23
Determine the stationing of PRC (point of reverse curvature). Use arc basis.

Problem 24 A reverse curve of equal radii connects two parallel tangents 12 m apart. The
length of chord from P.C to P.T is 140 m. Determine the total length of the reverse curve.

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Problem 25 Two parallel roads 40 m apart are to be connected by a reverse curve with
equal radii at PC and PT. The length of the common tangent is 160 m. The stationing of PC is
14+285.
a. Determine the radius of the reverse curve.
b. Determine the length of the curve from PC to PT.
c. Determine the stationing of PT.

2.8 Spiral Curve

A Spiral Curve or Transition Curve is a curve of varying radius introduced at the outer edges
of the roadway or truck in order to allow the vehicle or train to pass gradually from tangent
to the circular curve.
It is a curve of constantly changing radius. It varies from infinity to a radius, R of a simple
curve.

Elements of a Spiral Curve:

1. TS = Tangent to Spiral
2. SC = Spiral to Curve
3. CS = Curve to Spiral
4. ST = Spiral to Tangent
5. LT = Long Tangent
6. ST = Short Tangent
7. R = Radius of Simple Curve
8. T = Tangent Distance of Spiral
9. Tc = Curve Tangent Distance
10. Ls = Length of Spiral Curve
MANSAYON 15
HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

11. L = Length of Spiral from TS to any point along the Spiral Curve
12. Lc = Length of Circular Curve
13. PI = Point of Intersection or Vertex, V of Spiral (SPI)
14. I = Angle of Intersection of Spiral Curve
15. Ic = Angle of Intersection of Simple Curve
16. P = Length of throw or Shift, the distance by which the circular curve is shifted laterally
from the tangent at the beginning of the curve
17. X = offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to any point on the spiral
18. Xc = offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to SC
19. Y = distance along tangent to any point on the spiral
20. Yc = distance along tangent from TS to point at right angle to SC
21. E = external distance of spiral curve
22. 𝛳 = spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral
23. 𝛳s = spiral angle from tangent to SC
24. i = deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral, it is proportional to the square of
its distance
25. ic = deflection angle from TS to SC
26. D = degree of curve at any point on spiral
27. Dc = degree of spiral curve at any point
28. Given the stationing of TS
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑇𝑆 + 𝐿+ + 𝐿# + 𝐿+
29. Given the stationing of PI
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑇 + 𝐿+ + 𝐿# + 𝐿+

𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑇𝑆 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑇 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑆𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑇𝑆 + 𝐿+ 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐿+

𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝐶𝑆 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑆𝐶 + 𝐿#

2.8.1 Calculations of Spiral Curve Elements

1. Spiral angle at any point on spiral, 𝛳 (in radians)

16 MANSAYON
 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

𝐿)
𝜃=
2𝑅𝐿+
When L = Ls, 𝛳 = 𝛳c
2. Offset distance at any point on spiral, X
𝐿,
𝑋=
6𝑅𝐿+
When L = Ls, X = Xc
3. Deflection angle at any point on spiral, i
𝜃
𝑖=
3
When L = Ls, 𝛳 = 𝛳c and i = ic
4. Distance measured from TS along tangent line to any point on spiral, Y
𝐿-
𝑌=𝐿−
40(𝑅𝐿+ ))
When L = Ls, Y = Yc
5. Tangent distance for spiral, T
Right triangle solution
𝐼 𝑇−𝑍 𝐿+
tan = ; 𝑍=
2 𝑅+𝑃 2
𝐿+ 𝐼
𝑇 = + (𝑅 + 𝑃) tan
2 2
6. External Distance, E
Right triangle solution
𝐼 𝑅+𝑃
cos =
2 𝑅+𝐸
𝐼
𝐸 = (𝑅 + 𝑃) sec − 𝑅
2
7. Angle of intersection of simple curve, Ic
𝐼 = 𝐼# + 2𝜃#
𝐼# = 𝐼 − 2𝜃#
8. Length of throw or shift, P
𝑋#
𝑃=
4
9. Impact factor, IF
Consider the vector triangle formed by W, CF and R
W = weight of the car
CF = centrifugal force
R = resultant force of normal and frictional force
𝑣)
𝐶𝐹 𝑚 𝑎. 𝑅 𝑣)
tan(𝜃 + 𝜙) = = = =
𝑊 𝑚𝑔 𝑔 𝑔𝑅
)
𝑣
IF = tan(𝜃 + 𝜙) =
𝑔𝑅
tan 𝜃 + tan 𝜙 𝑣)
tan(𝜃 + 𝜙) = =
1 − tan 𝜃 tan 𝜙 𝑔𝑅
tan 𝜃 tan 𝜙 ≈ 0

MANSAYON 17
HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

𝑣)
tan 𝜃 + tan 𝜙 = 𝑒 + 𝑓 =
𝑔𝑅
10. Design superelevation
For maximum superelevation, f = 0 or 𝜙 = 0.
𝑣)
𝑒+𝑓 =𝑒+0=
𝑔𝑅
)
𝑣
𝑒=
𝑔𝑅
v = kph, g = 9.81 m/s2, R = m
𝑣 )
U3.6W 0.0079𝑣 )
𝑒= =
(9.81)𝑅 𝑅
v is in kph and can be denoted as K.
0.0079𝐾 )
𝑒=
𝑅
11. Considering 75% of K to counteract the superelevation
0.004𝐾 )
𝑒=
𝑅
12. Deflection angle vary as the squares of the length from the TS of the spiral
𝐿)
𝜃 2𝑅𝐿+ 𝐿)
𝑖= = =
3 3 6𝑅𝐿+
)
𝐿 𝐿)+
6𝑅𝐿+ = =
𝑖 𝑖#
)
𝑖 𝐿
= )
𝑖# 𝐿+
13. Degree of curve varies directly with the length from the TS.
𝐷 𝐿
=
𝐷# 𝐿+
14. Short and Long tangent
Right triangle solution
𝑋#
sin 𝜃# =
𝑆𝑇
𝑋#
𝐿𝑇 = 𝑌# − 𝑎 tan 𝜃# =
𝑎

2.8.2 Advantages of Spiral Curve

1. Spiral curves provide a natural path for a motorist to follow, allowing centrifugal force to
increase and decrease gradually as the vehicle enters and leaves the circular portion of the
curve.
2. The spiral curve length provides a desirable arrangement for superelevation runoff. A
change from normal to a fully superelevated cross-slope is applied along the spiral curve
length.
3. Where the pavement section is to be widened around a circular curve, the spiral facilitates
the transition in width.
4. Highway appearance is improved by the application of spirals.

18 MANSAYON
 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

2.8.3 Standards for the length of Spiral Curve

1. Based on travel time (enough time for reaction)

𝐿+ ≥ 3 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

2. Based on the rate of change of acceleration, p

𝑣) 𝐿+ 𝑎
𝑎. = 𝑎 = 𝑣= 𝑝=
𝑅 𝑡 𝑡

𝑣)
𝑎 𝑅 𝑣,
𝑝= = =
𝑡 𝐿+ 𝑅𝐿+
𝑣

Shortt’s formula Range of values of p:

,
𝑣 p = 0.35 – 0.50 m/s3 for expressways
𝐿+ ≥
𝑅𝑝 p = 0.60 – 0.75 m/s3 for rural and urban highway
For p = 0.60 m/s3,
𝑣 ,
U W
𝐿+ ≥ 3.6
𝑅(0.60)
0.036𝑣 ,
𝐿+ ≥
𝑅
v = K = kph
0.036𝐾 ,
𝐿+ ≥
𝑅

3. Based on aesthetics
The longitudinal gradient of the superelevation runoff should not exceed 1/200.
Longitudinal gradient, gL 1 ℎ
ℎ = ℎ = 𝑔* 𝐿+
𝑔* = 200 𝐿+
𝐿+
Superelevation, e
Where:
ℎ ℎ = 𝑒𝑤
𝑒= w = width of one lane
𝑤
Relationship of superelevation, longitudinal gradient and width of one lane
𝑔* 𝐿+ = 𝑒𝑤
𝑒𝑤
𝐿+ =
𝑔*

Problem 26 A spiral easement curve has a length of 100 m with a central curve having a
radius of 300 m. Calculate the offset distance from the tangent to the second-quarter point of
the spiral.

Problem 27 Find the degree of curve of a central simple curve if it has a spiral curve 100 m
long on two sides, on which a car travelling at 75 kph will not skid. Use arc basis.

MANSAYON 19
HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Problem 28 The tangents of a spiral curve intersect at an angle of 25° at Sta 4+072. The
radius of the central curve is 300 m and the length of the spiral curve is 52.71 m. Determine
the following:
a. Stationing of the point where the spiral starts
b. Stationing of the point where the central curve starts
c. Total length of the curve

Problem 29 An easement curve along the McArthur Highway has a length of spiral equal to
60 m having a central curve of radius 400 m. The design speed of the car allowed to pass
through this portion is 100 kph. Determine the following:
a. Rate of increase of centripetal acceleration
b. Superelevation rate of the roadway if the friction factor is equal to 0.14
c. Width of one lane of roadway if the difference in grade between the centerline and the
edge of the roadway is 1/220

Problem 30 A simple curve having a radius of 285 m connects two tangents intersecting at
an angle of 45 degrees. It is to be replaced by another curve having 75 m spirals at its ends
such that the point of tangency shall be the same. Determine the following:
a. Radius of the new circular curve
b. Distance that the curve will be nearer the vertex
c. Central angle of the circular curve
d. Deflection angle at end point of the spiral
e. Offset from the tangent at the end of the point of the spiral
f. Distance along the tangent at the midpoint of the spiral

Problem 31 Two tangents having azimuths of 240° and 282° are connected by an 80 m
spiral curve with a 6° circular curve. The width of the roadway is 10m. If the design velocity
is 60 kph, determine the following:
a. External distance of the spiral
b. Superelevation at quarter points
c. Spiral angle at SC
d. Length of throw
e. If Sta. V = (5+200), locate sta. TS, SC, CS and ST

2.9 Parallel Circular Arcs

The design radius for a curve is usually to the centerline. However, it is often necessary to
locate a parallel curve such as a right-of-way line, the edge of pavement, or a curb line.
Because the central angle is the same for parallel arcs, deflection angles are the same.
The chord lengths are a function of the radius of the arc, and they will be different for arcs of
different radius. Length of curve is also a function of the radius. The PC stations for all
parallel arcs will be the same. Arc lengths for inside and outside curves will be different, but
the PT stations will be the same.

Problem 32 Construction stakes are to be set for the curve in Problem 19. The street width
is 12.2 m. Stakes are to be set on a particular offsets, inside and outside the edge of
pavement. Present the subchords of inside and outside curves.

20 MANSAYON
 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

3.1 Introduction

Vertical Curves – are the second of the two important transition elements in geometric
design for highways, the first being Horizontal Curves. A vertical curve provides a
transition between two sloped roadways, allowing a vehicle to negotiate the elevation rate
change at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut. The design of the curve is dependent on
the intended design speed for the roadway, as well as other factors including drainage,
slope, acceptable rate of change, and friction. These curves are parabolic and are assigned
stationing based on a horizontal axis.
Referring to the illustration below, which shows the profile view of a proposed section of
highway to be constructed from A to B.A grade line consisting of three tangent sections has
been designed to fit the ground profile. Two vertical curves are needed: curve a to join
tangents 1 and 2, and curve b to connect tangents 2 and 3. The function of each curve is to
provide a gradual change in grade from the initial (back) tangent to the grade of the
second (forward) tangent. Because parabolas provide a constant rate of change of grade,
they are ideal and almost always applied for vertical alignments used by vehicular traffic.

3.2 Grades
Vertical curves are used to connect stretches of road that go up or down at a constant
slope. These lines of constant slope are called grade tangents. The rate of slope is called the
gradient, or simply the grade. (Do not confuse this use of the term grade with other
meanings, such as the design elevation of a finished surface at a given point or the actual
elevation of the existing ground at a given point.) Grades that ascend in the direction of the
stationing are designated as plus; those that descend in the direction of the stationing are
designated as minus.

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

After the location of a road has been determined and the necessary fieldwork has been
obtained, the engineer designs or fixes (sets) the grades. A number of factors are
considered, including the intended use and importance of the road and the existing
topography. If a road is too steep, the comfort and safety of the users and fuel consumption
of the vehicles will be adversely affected; therefore, the design criteria will specify
maximum grades. Typical maximum grades are a 4-percent desired maximum and a 6-
percent absolute maximum for a primary road.

3.3 Types of Vertical Curves

Vertical curves can be broadly classified into crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves,
as illustrated in figure below. Note that in these figures, the distance from the PVC to the
PVI is L/2. This is used in this figure because in practice the vast majority of vertical curves
are arranged such that half of the curve length is positioned before the PVI and half after.
Curves that satisfy this criterion are called equal-tangent vertical curves or “Symmetrical
Curves”

3.4 General Equation Of Vertical Parabolic Curves

The general mathematical expression of a parabola, with respect to an XY rectangular

coordinate system, is given by:
(Equation 3.1)
𝑌 = 𝑎𝑥 ) + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Where:
Y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of the vertical curve
𝑥 = distance from the beginning of the vertical curve
𝑎, 𝑏 = coefficients defined below
𝑐 = elevation of the beginning of the vertical curve.

In defining 𝑎 and 𝑏, note that the first derivative of Eq. (4.1) gives the slope and is
(Equation 3.2)
𝑑𝑌
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑑𝑥
22 MANSAYON
 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

At the beginning of the curve, x = 0, so using Equation 3.2

(Equation 3.3)
𝑑𝑌
𝑏= = 𝑔"
𝑑𝑥
Where, 𝑔1 is the initial slope or grade of the vertical curve. Also note that the second
derivative of Equation 3.1 is the rate of change of slope and is
(Equation 3.4)
𝑑) 𝑌
= 2𝑎
𝑑𝑥 )

However, the average rate of change of slope can also be written as

(Equation 3.5)
𝑑) 𝑌 𝑔) − 𝑔"
=
𝑑𝑥 ) 𝐿
Therefore,
(Equation 3.6)
𝑔) − 𝑔"
𝑎=
2𝐿

3.5 Elements of Symmetrical Vertical Parabolic Curves

Some additional properties of vertical curves can now be formalized. For example, offsets,
which are vertical distances from the initial tangent to the curve, as illustrated in figure
below, are extremely important in vertical curve design and construction.

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HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

𝑔1 = initial roadway (tangent) grade in percent

𝑔2 = final roadway (tangent) grade in percent
y = offset at any distance 𝑥 from the 𝑃𝑉𝐶
ym = midcurve offset = H = e
yf = offset at the end of the vertical curve
𝑥 = distance from the 𝑃𝑉𝐶
𝐿 = Horizontal Length of the Parabolic Curve
𝑃𝑉𝐶 = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve)
𝑃𝑉𝐼 = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades)
𝑃𝑉𝑇 = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical curve
𝐴 = |𝑔2− 𝑔1| = Algebraic difference of grades
𝑆1 = Location of highest/lowest point from 𝑃𝑉𝐶
𝑆2 = Location of highest/lowest point from 𝑃𝑉𝑇

From the figure above we can see that the value for offset at the end of the vertical curve
is;
(Equation 3.7)
|𝑔) − 𝑔" |𝐿 𝐴𝐿
𝑦/ = =
2 2
By ratio and proportion, we can derive the value for y𝑚 and drawing a line from PVC to
PVT the vertical distance of this line to PVI is equivalent to 2ym. Thus,

2𝑦0 𝑦/
=
0.5𝐿 𝐿
4𝑦0 𝐴𝐿
=
𝐿 2𝐿

Cancelling 𝐿 on the right term will give us

4𝑦0 𝐴
=
𝐿 2

24 MANSAYON
 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

Solving for Ym,

(Equation 3.8)
𝐴𝐿 |𝑔) − 𝑔" |𝐿
𝑦0 = =
8 8
From geometry, using the square property of parabola, we can derive the formula for y
(Equation 3.9)
𝑦 𝑦0
=
𝑥 ) (0.5𝐿))

Substituting the Eq (4.8) to (4.9) and solving for 𝑌 will give us

(Equation 3.10)
𝐴𝑥 ) |𝑔) − 𝑔" |𝑥 )
𝑦= =
2𝐿 2𝐿

To derive the value of 𝑆1 we need to substitute Equation 3.3 and 3.6 to 3.2.

𝑑𝑌
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑌 |𝑔) − 𝑔" |
= 2𝑥 — ˜ + 𝑔"
𝑑𝑥 2𝐿

When 𝑥 = 𝑆1 and 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 = 0 the equation above will become

|𝑔) − 𝑔" | 𝑆" 𝐴

0 = 𝑆" — ˜ + 𝑔" = + 𝑔"
𝐿 𝐿
Solving for 𝑆1
(Equation 3.11)
𝑔" 𝐿 𝑔" 𝐿
𝑆" = − =−
𝐴 |𝑔) − 𝑔" |

Other useful formula is the rate of change of slope and can be written as follows:
(Equation 3.12)
𝐴 |𝑔) − 𝑔" |
𝑟= =
𝑛 𝑛

Where r = rate of change of slope or grade and n = number of stations

Basics

Problem 33 A grade of 6.5% meets a grade of -3% at STA 10+800 whose elevation is at
1560 m. A parabolic curve AB, 400m long connects the grade lines with A on the back
tangent. Find the stationing of A.

Problem 34 A vertical sag curve has tangent grades of -3.5% and +4.6% meeting at point
A whose elevation is 67 m. If the length of the curve is 440 m, find the elevation of the P.C.

MANSAYON 25
HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Problem 35 A vertical parabolic sag curve has tangent grades of -1.2% and +0.6%. If the
grade changes uniformly at 0.18% per 20 m, find the length of the curve.

Elements of Vertical Curves (Symmetrical)

𝐿 Decimal
𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑉𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑉𝐼 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑉𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑉𝐶 + 𝐿
2 𝐵 = 𝑔) − 𝑔"
Max/min point of crest Or sag Max vertical offset
𝑔" 𝐿 𝑔) 𝐿 𝐿𝐵
𝑆" = ; 𝑆) = 𝐿 − 𝑆" 𝑆) = ; 𝑆" = 𝐿 − 𝑆) 𝐻=
𝐵 𝐵 8
SPP: Within the L/2 SPP: When S1 < L/2 S2 < L/2
𝐻 𝑦 𝐻 𝑦 𝐻 𝑦
= = =
(𝐿/2)) 𝑥 ) (𝐿/2)) 𝑆" ) (𝐿/2)) 𝑆) )
Rate of change of Ratio and proportion Grade Diagram (GD)
gradient ∆𝑔 𝑔) − 𝑔" ±∆ 𝑒𝑙 = ±𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎12
∆𝑔 𝑎 𝑟 = =
𝑟( = = ) ℓ 𝐿
ℓ 𝑣

Problem 36 A descending grade of 4.2% intersects an ascending grade of 3% at station

10+488 of elevation 102.8 m. These two grade lines are connected by a 260 m parabolic
curve. If the outside diameter of the pipe to be installed is 95 cm and the top of the culvert
is 30 cm below the road, what is the invert elevation?

Problem 37 An underpass crossing a reinforced concrete bridge along the Shaw Blvd. has
downward grade of -4% meeting an upward grade of +8% at the vertex (elev. 170 m) at
Sta 7 + 700, exactly underneath the center of the bridge having a width of 10 m. The
required minimum clearance under the bridge is 5 m and the elevation of the bottom of
the bridge is 178.1. Determine the following:
a. length of the parabolic curve that shall connect the two tangents
b. the stationing where a catch basin will be placed
c. the elevation where a catch basin will be placed

3.6 Unsymmetrical Vertical Parabolic Curves

A vertical highway curve is at times designed to include a particular elevation at a certain
station where the grades of the forward and backward tangents have already been
established. It is therefore necessary to use a curve with unequal tangents or a compound
curve which is usually called “unsymmetrical” or asymmetrical parabolic curve where one
parabola extends from the PVC to a point directly below the vertex and a second parabola
which extends from this point to the PVI. In order to make the entire curve smooth and
continuous, the two parabolas are so constructed so that they will have a common tangent
at the point where they have joined that is a point directly below the vertex.

Maximum vertical offset, H

𝐿" 𝐿) 𝐵 𝐿" 𝐿) |𝑔) − 𝑔" |
𝑦0 = = =𝐻
2𝐿 2𝐿

26 MANSAYON
 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

Squared property of parabola to determine the vertical offset of parabolic curve from
tangent line:
For x1 < L1,
𝑦" 𝐻
=
(𝑥" )) (𝐿" ))
For x2 < L2,

𝑦) 𝐻
=
(𝑥) )) (𝐿) ))

Location of highest or lowest point on the curve:

( *
From PVC, when !) ! < 𝐻,

𝑔" (𝐿" ))
𝑆" =
2𝐻
(! *!
From PVT, when )
> 𝐻,
𝑔) (𝐿) ))
𝑆) =
2𝐻
Grade diagram solution requires solving of common tangent grade, g3 from the triangle
formed by back, forward and common tangent grades:

[Δ𝑔]% 𝐿" /2 = [Δ𝑔]3 𝐿) /2

(𝑔, − 𝑔" )𝐿" = (𝑔) − 𝑔, )𝐿)

±∆ 𝑒𝑙 = ±𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎12
𝑒𝑙. 𝐵 = 𝑒𝑙𝐴 ± [∆ 𝑒𝑙]45

Problem 38 An unsymmetrical parabolic curve has a forward tangent of - 8% and a back

tangent of + 5%. Locate the position of the highest point on the summit and its distance
from the PVT. The vertical curve has a length of 40 m on the side of the PVC and 60 m from
the PVT. The PVC is at station (6 + 780) and has an elevation of 110 m. Determine also the
elevation of the highest point.

MANSAYON 27
HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

28 MANSAYON