Government of Nepal

Ministry of Land Reform and Management

Land Management Training Centre
Dhulikhel-7

Module: Engineering Survey

Curves
Hareram Yadav
Instructor

Land Management Training Centre

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Curves

CURVES

Contents
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3
2. Classification of Curves .............................................................................................................. 3
2.1. Horizontal Curves................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Vertical Curves ....................................................................................................................... 4
3. Simple Circular Curve ................................................................................................................. 5
3.1. Definition of Various Components ......................................................................................... 5
3.2. Elements of Simple Circular Curve.......................................................................................... 7
3.3. Designation of Curve.............................................................................................................. 7
4. Setting Out Simple Circular Curve .............................................................................................. 8
4.1. Linear Method ....................................................................................................................... 8
4.2. Angular Method................................................................................................................... 14
5. Field Problems in Setting Out the Circular Curves..................................................................... 17
6. Transition Curve (Brief introduction) ........................................................................................ 18
7. Vertical Curve (Brief introduction) ........................................................................................... 19
8. References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21

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1. Introduction
Curves are required to be introduced where it is necessary to change the direction of
motion from one straight section of a highway or a railway to another. These are
provided due to the nature of terrain or other avoidable reasons to enable smooth
passage of vehicles. In highway practice, it is recommended to provide curves
deliberately on straight routes to break the monotony in driving on long straight routes
to avoid accidents. The track or road usually curves in both the horizontal and vertical
planes. The design and setting out of such curves is an important aspect of route
surveys. While placing pegs to define points on straight reaches is relatively simple,
setting out curves needs detailed consideration. In curve surveying the measurements
and other data, taken from the plan, are transferred to the ground.

2. Classification of Curves
For survey purposes, curves are classified as horizontal or vertical, depending on
whether they are introduced in the horizontal or vertical plane.

2.1. Horizontal Curves

Horizontal curves can be circular or non-circular (transitional) curves. Different types
of horizontal curve are shown in Figure 2.1

2.1.1. Simple Circular Curve

When a curve consists of a single arc with a constant radius connecting the two
straights or tangents, it is said to be a circular curve.

2.1.2. Compound Curve

When a curve consists of two or more arcs with different radii, it is called a
compound curve. Such a curve lies on the same side of a common tangent and the
centres of the different arcs lie on the same side of their respective tangents.

2.1.3. Reverse Curve

A reverse curve consists of two arc bending in opposite directions. Their centres lie
on opposite sides of the curve. Their radii may be either equal or different, and they
have one common tangent .

2.1.4. Transition Curve

A curve of variable radius is known as a transition curve. It is also called a easement
curve. Such a curve is provided between a straight and a circular curve, or between
branches of a compound or reverse curve to avoid an abrupt change in direction when
the alignment changes.

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Fig.2.1 Horizontal Curves

Along the alignment of any project the nature of the ground may not be uniform and
may consist of different gradients (for instance, rising gradient may be followed by
falling gradient and vice-versa). In such a case, a parabolic curved path is provided in
the vertical plane in order to connect the gradients for easy movement of the vehicles.
This curve is known as a vertical curve (figure2.2).

2.2. Vertical Curves

Vertical curves may be classified as summit curves and sag or valley curves.

2.2.1. Summit Curves

If a vertical curve has its convexity upwards, it is called a summit curve.

2.2.2. Sag or Valley Curves

The vertical curve having its convexity downwards or when it is concave upwards, it
is called a sag or valley curve.

Fig.2.2 Vertical Curves

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3. Simple Circular Curve

Figure 4.3 shows a simple circular curve with two straight lines AI and IB intersect at
the point I. The curve T1C T2 of radius R is inserted to make a smooth change of
direction from AI to IB. A simple circular curve has various components whose
definitions are given below.

Fig.2.1 Components of Simple Circular Curves

3.1. Definition of Various Components

3.1.1. Back Tangent

The tangent (AT ) previous to the curve is called the back tangent or first tangent.
1

3.1.2. Forward Tangent

The tangent (T B) following the curve is called the forward tangent or second tangent.
2

3.1.3. Point of Intersection

If the two tangents AT and BT are produced, they will meet in a point I called the point
1 2
of intersection (PI) or vertex.

3.1.4. Point of Curve (PC)

It is the beginning of the curve (T ) where the alignment changes from a tangent to curve.
1

3.1.5. Point of Tangency (PT)

It is the end of the curve (T ) where the alignment changes from a curve to tangent.
2

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3.1.6. Intersection Angle

The angle between the tangent AT and BT is called the intersection angle (φ).
1 2

3.1.7. Deflection Angle

The angle Δ through which the forward tangent deflects is called the deflection angle of
the curve. It may be either to the left or the right.

3.1.8. Deflection Angle to any Point

The deflection angle δ to any point a on the curve is the angle at PC between the back
tangent and the chord T a from PC to point on the curve.
1

3.1.9. Tangent Distance (T)

It is the distance between PC to PI (also the distance from PI to PT).

3.1.10. External Distance (E)

It is distance from the mid-point of the curve to PI. It is also known as the apex distance.

3.1.11. Length of the Curve (l)

l is the total length of the curve from PC to PT.

3.1.12. Long Chord (L)

It is the chord joining PC to PT.

3.1.13. Mid Ordinate (M)

It is the ordinate from the mid-point of the long chord to the mid-point of the curve. It is
also called the versine of the curve.

3.1.14. Normal Chord (C)

A chord between two successive regular stations on a curve is called a normal chord.

3.1.15. Sub-Chord (c)

Sub-chord is any chord shorter than the normal chord. These generally occur at the
beginning or at the end of the curve.

3.1.16. Right-hand Curve

If the curve deflects to the right of the direction of the progress of survey, it is called the
right-hand curve.

3.1.17. Left-hand Curve

If the curve deflects to the left of the direction of the progress of survey, it is called the
left-hand curve.

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3.2. Elements of Simple Circular Curve

3.2.1. Length of the Curve (l)

Length l = T CT = R Δ, where Δ is in radians
1 2
o
= (π R) Δ/180 , where Δ is in degrees.

3.2.2. Tangent Length (T)

Tangent length, T = T1I = IT2
= OT1 tan Δ/2 = R tan Δ/2

3.2.3. Length of the Long Chord (L)

L = T1T2 = 2 OT1 sin Δ/2
= 2 R sin Δ/2

3.2.4. Apex Distance or External Distance (E)

E = CI = IO – CO
= R sec Δ/2 – R
= R (sec Δ/2 – l)
= R exsec Δ/2

3.2.5. Mid-ordinate (M)

M = CD = CO – DO
= R – R cos Δ/2
= R (1 – cos Δ/2) = R versin Δ/2

3.3. Designation of Curve

The sharpness of the curve is designated either by its radius or by its degree of
curvature. The degree of curvature has several slightly different definitions.
According to the arc definition generally used in highway practice, the degree of the
curve (Da0) is defined as the central angle of the curve that is subtended by an arc AB
of 30 m length (Figure 3.3).
If the degree of curve is taken in degrees, for a curve of radius R meter, then Da0
o
Da0/ 30 = 360 / 2π R
or = 10800/2π R Da0
= 1718.9/R (approximate)

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Fig.3.3 Degree of Curves

According to the chord definition generally used in railway practice, the degree of the
curve () is defined as the central angle of the curve that is subtended by its chord AB
of 30 m length.
sin (Dc0/2) = AC/AO
= 15 /R
R = 15 /sin (Dc0/2)
Radius of curvature varies inversely as the degree of curve. A sharp curve has a larger
degree of curve whereas a flat curve has a smaller degree of curve. To satisfy the
safety requirements at high speed the curve should be as flat as economically feasible.
In actual practice, every curve is chosen so that either its radius or degree of curvature
is expressed in round numbers. These days curves are generally designed by the
radius of the curve as the calculation can be done conveniently.

4. Setting Out Simple Circular Curve

A circular curve can be set out in the field by linear method and angular method.
These are described below.
(a) Linear method is also called chain and tape method. In this method, only
tape and chains are used and no angular measurement is carried out.
(b) In angular method or Instrumental method, a theodolite, tacheometer or a
total station instrument is used for angular measurement.

Before a curve is set out, it is essential to locate the tangents, PI, PC and PT. The
surveyor is always supplied with a working plan upon which the general alignment of
tangent is known. The tangents can be staked on the ground by the tape and theodolite
measurement. The total deflection angle (Δ) can be measured. After having located
the PI and measured Δ, the tangent length can be calculated and knowing the chainage
of PI, the chainage of point T1 can be known by subtracting the tangent length from it.
The length of curve is then added to T1 to get the chainage of T2.

4.1. Linear Method

Listed below are some of the linear methods of setting out simple circular curve
followed by their description :

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4.1.1. Offsets from the long chord

The method is suitable for setting out circular curves of small radius, such as those at
road intersections in a city or in boundary walls. In Figure 4.1.1, the offset Oxa to the
point a on the curve is the perpendicular distance of point a from the long chord T 1T2,
at a distance xa from D along the long chord. Considering the origin at D,axOis the y-
coordinate of point a.

Fig.4.1.1 Offset from long chord

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The long chord is divided into equal parts of suitable length. The offset Oax
corresponding to the distances xa from D are calculated for different points on the
long chord. These offsets are measured perpendicular to the long chord with the help
of an optical square and points are located. Joining these points will produce the
desired curve. The points on the right side of CD are set out by symmetry.

4.1.2. Successive bisection of chord

The method being approximate is suitable for small curves. It involves the location of
points on the curve by bisecting the chords and erecting perpendiculars at the
midpoint of the chords.

Fig.4.1.2 Successive bisection of curve

In Figure 4.1.2, T T is the long chord and D is its midpoint. C is the point of intersection
1 2
of the perpendicular line at D, with the curve. Dc is the mid-ordinate, which is equal to

At D, a perpendicular offset equal to M is erected and the position C is located. Now

consider the chords T C and T C, locate their midpoints d and d respectively. Erect two
1 2 1 2
perpendiculars at d and d and measure the offsets equal to d c and d c , respectively.
1 2 1 1 2 2
The offsets d c and d c are computed from the following formula :
1 1 2 2

Now, by the successive bisection of these chords, more points can be located in a similar
manner.
After locating T and T , the midpoint D of T T is obtained, by measuring T T . The
1 2 1 2 1 2
perpendicular offset DC is set out at D with an optical square and point C is located.
Measure T C, and T C, and locate their midpoints d and d . The perpendicular offsets
1 2 1 2
d c and d c are set out at d and d , and the points c and c are established on the curve.
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
The process is continued till sufficient numbers of points on the curve are fixed.

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4.1.3. Offsets from the tangents

This method is used when the deflection angle and the radius of curvature both are
comparatively small. In this method, the curve is set out by measuring offsets from
the tangent. The offsets from the tangent can be either perpendicular or radial to the
tangent.
Perpendicular Offsets Method
Let the point a be on the curve and the perpendicular offset from the tangent T to it at P
1
be Oxa. Let the distance of P from T be xa. Draw a line Qa perpendicular to T O,
1 1
intersecting OT at Q.
1

Fig.4.1.3 perpendicular offset

Before setting out a curve, a table of offsets for different values of x (e.g., 10 m, 20 m,
30 m, etc.) is made. Then from T1 the distances x1,x2,x3 etc., are measured along the

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tangent and the corresponding offsets are measured on the perpendiculars to the
tangent with the help of an optical square.
Since the offsets of points equidistant from T1 and T2, are equal, the same table is
used for offsets from both the tangents.
Radial Offsets Method
Let the radial offset to the point a on the curve be Oxa from the point P at a distance of xa
from T .
1

A table of offsets for different values of x is made. Then from T1 the distances
x1,x2,x3 etc., are measured along the tangent and the corresponding radial offsets are
measured such that point a etc. on the curve lie on the line joining the point and the
centre of the curve.
It should be noted that if the curve is set out by the approximate expression, the points
on the curve will lie on a parabola and not on the arc of a circle. However, if the

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versed sine of the curve is less than one-eight of its chord, the curve approximates
very closely to a circle.

4.1.4. Offsets from the chords produced

The method has the advantage that not all the land between the tangents points T 1 and
T2 need be accessible. However to have reasonable accuracy the length of the chord
chosen should not exceed R/20. The method has a drawback that error in locating is
carried forward to other points. This method is based on the premise that for small
chords, the chord length is small and approximately equal to the arc length.
For setting out the curve, it is divided into a number of chords normally 20 to 30 m in
length. For the continuous chainage required along the curve, the two sub-chords are
taken, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the curve. The first sub-chord
length is such that a full number of chainage is obtained on the curve near T 1 and the
second sub-chord length near T2.
From the property of a circle, if the angle ∠FT1a=δ

The first chord C1 is called the sub-chord. The length of the sub-chord is so adjusted
that the chord length when added to the chainage of T1 makes the chainage of point a
as full chain. Subsequent chord lengths C2,C3,C4… are full chains. T1a is then
produced to b’ such that ab’=C2 ,a full chain.
The second offset

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4.2. Angular Method

Following are some of the angular method used to set out a simple circular curve :
(a) Tape and theodolite method
(b) Two theodolite method
(c) Tachometric method
(d) Total station Method
Tape and Theodolite Method
In this method, a tape is used for making linear measurements and a theodolite is used for
making angular measurements. The curve can be set out by the following procedures :
Rankine’s Method
The method is known as Rankine’s method of tangential angle or the deflection angle
method. The method is accurate and is used in railways and highways.
Let T ab be a part of a circular curve with T , the initial tangent point. Thus, T a is
1 1 1
the first sub-chord which is normally less than one chain length.
From the property of a circle

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Therefore to locate the point a with the help of a theodolite and tape, the instrument
is set at T and the line of sight is put at an angle of δ = Δ as computed above. Then
1 1 1
with the help of a tape and ranging rod, the tape is put along the line of sight and
distance C is then measured to locate point a along the line of sight.
1

Similarly, 2 = 1718.9 ∗ 2/
Since the theodolite remains at T , b is sighted from T by measuring δ1+δ2=Δ from
1 1
the tangent line. The point b is located with the help of a tape and ranging rod. The
tape with the ranging rod is so adjusted that the tape measures ab = C and the
2
ranging rod lies along the line of sight T b
1

In practice, C is the first sub-chord and C the last sub-chord. C2 =C3 =….=Cn-1 are
1 n
full chain lengths. As a check the deflection angle Δn for the last point T2 is equal to
Δ /2 where Δ is the angle of intersection.
Curve from Point of Intersection (PI)
The procedure is based on the following geometrical relations. Let a be the point
which is to be located. aa is perpendicular on the tangent IT . Line aF is drawn
1 1
parallel to IT . In the triangle Iaa
1 1

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If a curve is divided into ten equal parts

To locate the point a, the instrument is set up at I and making an angle α1 calculated
corresponding to θ1. As the rotation is anti-clockwise if the reading is zero-zero along
o
IT , the reading along Ia will be (360 – α ). The length T a will be one tenth of curve
1 1 1
length l. With zero of tape at T , and ranging rod at l/10, the tape is swung till the
1
angle α1 is bisected. Similarly, other points can be located.
Two Theodolite Method
This method is employed for setting out a curve by making angular measurements.
Therefore, the instrument required is only a theodolite. The method is quite accurate.
It is specially preferred when the ground is rough, and accurate chaining is not
possible. Since, in this method each point is fixed independently the error in setting
out is not carried forward.

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The method is based on the property of a circle that the angle between the tangent
and the chord is equal to the angle which that chord subtends in the opposite
segment. Thus, for the chords in Figure

The method requires setting up two theodolites, one at T and the other at T . The
1 2
theodolite at T should read zero for the point I and the theodolite at T should read
1 2
zero for the point T . Set the first deflection angle δ1 on both theodolites. Thus, their
1
telescopes are in the direction T a and T a, respectively. Now the attendant is asked
1 2
to move with a ranging rod in the line of sight of one of the theodolites. The observer
of the other theodolite finds the point where the ranging rod is intersected by the
vertical hair of his theodolite. This point is the required location on the curve. The
second point is located by setting the second deflection angle δ2 on the two
theodolites and the location of the point on curve is determined by the procedure
given above. The process is continued for locating the other points on the curve till
all the points are located on the ground.
For remaining two methods of angular or instrumental method you may refer other
standard text on curve surveying.zz For remaining two methods of angular or
instrumental method you may refer other standard text on curve surveying For
remaining two methods of angular or instrumental method you may refer other
standard text on curve surveying

5. Field Problems in Setting Out the Circular Curves

The following are some of the field problems in setting out the circular curves.
(a) Point of curve inaccessible.
(b) Point of tangency inaccessible.
(c) Point of intersection inaccessible.
(d) Curve tangential to three lines.
(e) Both point of commencement and point of intersection inaccessible.
(f) Both point of commencement and point of tangency inaccessible.
(g) An obstacle intervenes on the curve.

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(h) Curve not completely visible from the starting point.

(i) Passing the curve through a given point.
(j) Locating the intersection of a circular curve and a straight line.
(k) Locating the intersection of two circular curves.

6. Transition Curve (Brief introduction)

A transition or easement curve is a curve of a varying radius introduced between a straight and
a circular curve, or between branches of a compound curve or reverse curve. The introduction
of a transition curve between the straight and the circular arc, as indicated in Figure 4.19,
permits the gradual elevation of the outer edge or gradual introduction of cant or super-
elevation (raising the outer edge over the inner). At the same time, it also permits gradual
change of direction from straight to the circular curve and vice-versa.

On a straight track, its two edges are at the same level. On a circular arc the outer edge is elevated
depending on the radius of the curve and the speed to the vehicles expected, to avoid over turning
of the vehicles due to centrifugal force acting on them while moving on circular path. Also, there
is an abrupt change in direction when the alignment changes from straight to circular curve and
vice-versa.
In railways, such a curve is provided on both sides of a circular curve to minimise super-
elevation. Excessive super-elevation may cause wear and tear of the rail section and discomfort
to passengers.

Advantages of a Transition Curve

The introduction of a transition curve between a straight and a circular curve has the
following advantages :
(a) The chances of overturning of the vehicles and the derailment of trains are
reduced considerably.

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(b) It provides comfort to the passengers on vehicles while negotiating a curve.

(c) The super-elevation is introduced gradually in proportion to the rate of change of
curvature.
(d) It permits higher speeds at curves.
(e) It reduces the wear on the running gears
Requirements of a Transition Curve
A transition curve introduced between tangent and the circular curve should fulfill the
following conditions :
(a) It should be tangential to the straight.
(b) It should meet the circular curve tangentially.
(c) Its curvature should be zero at the origin on tangent.

(d) Its curvature should be equal to that of the circular curve at the junction with the
circular curve.
(e) The rate of change of curvature from zero to the radius of the circular curve
should be the same as that of increase of cant or super-elevation.
(f) The length of the transition curve should be such that full cant or super-elevation is attained
at the junction with the circular curve.

7. Vertical Curve (Brief introduction)

When the grade line of a highway or railway changes grade such as while crossing low ridges or
valleys, provision must be made for a vehicle to negotiate this transition smoothly and to provide
vision over the crest of a hill far enough ahead to give the driver of the vehicle ample time to
react to a dangerous situation. A parabola is most commonly used as a vertical curve due to
simplicity in calculations of offsets for setting the vertical curve. An important requirement of a
vertical curve s is that they should provide a constant rate of change of grade, and the parabola
fulfils this requirement, as shown below :
General equation of a parabola with its axis vertical, is

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Types of Vertical Curves

The vertical curves may be classified as
(a) Summit curves
(b) Sag or valley curves

Summit Curves
If a vertical curve has its convexity upwards, it is called a summit curve. Depending upon
the field conditions, a summit curve may be formed
(a) by an upgrade followed by an equal or different downgrade (Figure (a)),
(b) by an upgrade followed by a flatter upgrade (Figure (b)), or
(c) by a downgrade followed by a steeper down grade as in Figure (c).

Sag or Valley Curves

The vertical curve having its convexity downwards or when it is concave upwards it is
called a sag or valley curve. A sag curve may be formed
(a) by a downgrade followed by an equal or different downgrade as in Figure 4.22(a),
(b) by a downgrade followed by a flatter downgrade as shown in Figure 4.22(b), or

(c) by an upgrade followed by a steeper upgrade (Figure (c)).

Gradient or the Grade

The gradient may be defined as proportional rise or fall between two points along a straight
line. It may be expressed in either of the following two ways :
Percentage (%)
The gradient expressed as a percentage is the vertical rise or fall in a horizontal
distance of 100 units. For example, a gradient of + 3% means that the slope rises by 3
m in every 100 m.

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Ratio
The gradient expressed as a ratio is the ratio of the vertical rise or fall and the horizontal
distances. For example, a gradient of 1 in 50 means that there is a rise of 1 m in 50 m.
Length of Vertical Curve
The rate (r) of the change of gradient is equal to the algebraic difference of the two gradients
meeting at the apex divided by the length of the curve. Thus,

Knowing the rate of change of gradient, the length of the vertical curve can be obtained from the
above relation. The recommended values of the rates of change of gradient for railways are
0.06% and 0.03% per 20 m stations at summit and sag curves respectively for first class
railways. Twice of these values are adopted for second class railways.

8. References:
1.Surveying and Levelling
-R. Subramanian
2.Plane Surveying
-Dr, A.M Chandra
3.Surveying and Levelling
-R. Agor
4.Surveying Vol-2
-Dr. K. R. Arora
5. Surveying and Levelling
-S.C Rangwala
6.Surveying Vol-1
-S.K.Duggal

------Best of Luck-----

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