16

CHAPTER 2 THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD I

2.1 Atomic Structure

(A) Elements
An element is a substance that consists of only one kind of atoms. It cannot be
broken down into simpler substances.

(B) Atoms
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the chemical
properties of the element.
The atoms of different elements are different.

(C) Names and Symbols of Some Common Elements

A chemical symbol is a short form containing a letter or group of letters to represent
an element. The first letter must be capital letter while the second one must be a
small letter. Some symbols are taken from Latin names of the elements.

Element Latin name Symbol Element Latin name Symbol

Aluminium Al Lead Plumbum Pb
Argon Ar Lithium Li
Barium Ba Magnesium Mg
Beryllium Be Manganese Mn
Boron B Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Bromine Br Neon Ne
Calcium Ca Nickel Ni
Carbon C Nitrogen N
Chlorine Cl Oxygen O
Chromium Cr Phosphorus P
Cobalt Co Platinum Pt
Copper Cuprum Cu Potassium Kallum K
Fluorine F Silicon Si
Gold Aurum Au Silver Argentum Ag
Helium He Sodium Natrium Na
Hydrogen H Sulphur S
Iodine I Tin Stannum Sn
Iron Ferrum Fe Zinc Zn
 17

(D) Classification of Elements into Metals, Non-metals & Metalloids

(a) Metals and Non-metals

Elements can be classified into metals and non-metals by comparing their
physical properties.

Property Metals Non-metals

Appearance Shiny Usually dull if they are
solids
States at room temperature Solids (except A few solids (e.g. C , S);
and pressure mercury) many gases but only one
liquid (Bromine)
Hardness and strength hard & strong not uniform (e.g. diamond
is hard and strong solid but
oxygen is a gas)
Density usually high usually low
Melting and boiling points Usually high Usually low
Electrical conductivity Good conductors Non-conductors (except
graphite)
Heat conductivity Good conductors Poor conductors
Malleability and ductility malleable and ductile brittle, not malleable and
ductile

Among the 112 known elements, only 17 are non-metals.

(b) Metalloids (Semi-metals)

A few elements have some properties of metals and other properties of
non-metals, they are called metalloids. e.g. silicon, boron and germanium.

Some properties of silicon

State at room temperature and Solid
pressure
Melting and boiling point High
Appearance Grey and shiny crystals, or brown
powder
Electrical conductivity Crystalline form conducts
electricity, brown powder from
does not conduct electricity
 18

Malleability and ductility Brittle, not malleable and ductile

Metalloids are very useful in making integrated circuits and semi-conductors in
the electronic industry.

(E) Simple Model of Atom

Atoms are made up of three subatomic particles
called protons, neutrons and electrons.

The positively charged protons and the neutral

neutrons are concentrated in the very tiny
nucleus. The negatively charged electrons
move around the nucleus. An atom is neutral
because it has the same number of protons and
electrons.

Sub-atomic particles
Name of Symbol Position in atom Charge (relative to Relative
particle that on a proton) mass
Proton p Inside the nucleus +1 1

Neutron n Inside the nucleus 0 1

Electron e- Moving around the -1 1/1840

nucleus

(F) Atomic Number

The atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in an atom of that
element.
Since an atom is neutral,
number of protons = number of electrons

Each element has a unique atomic number, which is used to identify the element.

Number of subatomic particles in atoms of the 20 simplest elements:

 19

Atom Symbol Number of protons Number of Number of

(Atomic Number) electrons neutrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 0
Helium He 2 2 2
Lithium Li 3 3 4
Beryllium Be 4 4 5
Boron B 5 5 6
Carbon C 6 6 6
Nitrogen N 7 7 7
Oxygen O 8 8 8
Fluorine F 9 9 10
Neon Ne 10 10 10
Sodium Na 11 11 12
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12
Aluminium Al 13 13 14
Silicon Si 14 14 14
Phosphorus P 15 15 16
Sulphur S 16 16 16
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18
Argon Ar 18 18 22
Potassium K 19 19 20
Calcium Ca 20 20 20

(G) Mass Number

Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

(H) Atomic Symbol

Atomic number and mass number of an atom are usually shown in a standard
notation as follows:

Mass number A
ZX
Symbol of the element
Atomic number
 20

e.g. 35 mass number = 35

17
Cl
atomic number = 17
number of neutron = 35 – 17 = 18
35
Therefore Cl has 17 protons, 17 electrons and 18 neutrons.
17

Atom of a metal may lose one or more electrons to form a positively charged ion.
∴ number of protons > number of electrons for the positive ion

e.g. 23 Na + has 11 protons, 10 electrons and 12 neutrons.

11
Atom of a non-metal may gain one or more electrons to form a negatively charged
ion.
∴ number of protons < number of electrons for negative ion

e.g. 35 Cl - has 17 protons, 18 electrons and 18 neutrons.

17

Exercise:

1. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in each of the following
species?

(a) 7 Li (b) 27 Al (c) 20 Ne (d) 40 Ca 2 + (e) 32 S 2 -

3 13 10 20 16

2. Complete the following table.

Particle Atomic Mass number Number of Number of Number of

number protons neutrons electrons
Na atom 11 23
P atom 31 15
U atom 146 92
S2- ion 16 16
Cs+ ion 55 133
76 116 76
56 82 54
35 79 36

(Symbol for atom with atomic number: 76 = Os, 56 = Ba & 35 = Br)

 21

(I) Isotopes
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element with the same number of protons
(same atomic number) but different number of neutrons (different mass
number).

Isotopes of an element have different masses. They have the same chemical
properties but different physical properties.

Most elements have more than one isotope.

Isotopes of some elements

Element Symbol Abundance of Atomic Mass number

isotopes number
1
Hydrogen 1H 99.985 % 1 1
2
1H 0.015 % 1 2
3
1H Negligible 1 3
6
Lithium 3Li 7.42 % 3 6
7
3Li 92.58 % 3 7
12
Carbon 6C 98.89 % 6 12
13
6C 1.11 % 6 13
14
6C Negligible 6 14

Oxygen 16 99.76 % 8 16
8O

17 0.04 % 8 17
8O

18 0.20 % 8 18
8O

Chlorine 75.0% 17 18

25.0% 17 20
 22

(J) Relative Masses of Atoms and the Carbon-12 Scale

(a) The Carbon−12 scale
Atoms are so small (< 1 x 10-10 m) and light (< 5 x 10-22 g) that ordinary units
of mass are not suitable to use.
The 12C isotope has been chosen as the reference standard of mass. One 12C
atom is given a mass of exactly 12.00.
1
So 1 atomic mass unit = x mass of one 12C atom
12
Masses of all other atoms are compared with this reference standard to give
their relative mass.
1
e.g. (i) Mass of a 1 H atom equals to of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, so
1 12
its relative isotopic mass is 1.

(ii) Mass of a 24 Mg atom is twice that of a 12C atom, so its relative mass
12
is 24.

(b) Relative isotopic mass

The relative isotopic mass of a particular isotope of an element is the mass of
one atom of that isotope on the 12C = 12.00 scale.

On the 12C = 12.00 scale, relative masses of proton, neutron and electron are
1.0074, 1.0089 and 0.00055 respectively. The relative masses of proton and
neutron are both very close to 1 and that of electron is nearly 0.
1
1 mass unit = x mass of one 12C atom
12
1
= x mass of (6 p + 6 n + 6 e)
12
≈ mass of 1 proton or 1 neutron

Therefore, by approximation,

Relative isotopic mass ≈ mass number

Different isotopes of each element have different relative isotopic masses.

 23

(c) Relative atomic mass

The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of all
natural isotopes of that element on the 12C = 12.00 scale.

e.g. (1) Chlorine consists of two natural isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl, with relative
abundance of 75% and 25% respectively. Calculate the atomic mass
of chlorine.

For every 100 atoms, 75 have mass 35 and 25 have mass 37.
Mass due to 35Cl = 35 × 75
Mass due to 37Cl = 37 × 25
The weighted average mass of 1 atom of chlorine
35 × 75 + 37 × 25
=
100
= 35.5

(2) Neon in the air contains two isotopes, 20Ne and 22Ne. The relative
atomic mass of neon is 20.2. Calculate the relative abundance of the
isotopes.
Let the relative abundance of 20Ne and 22Ne be y% and (100-y)%
respectively
20 x y + 22 x (100 - y)
20.2 =
100
2020 = 20y + 2200 – 22y
y = 90
The relative abundance of 20Ne is 90% and that of 22Ne is 10%.

*Relative isotopic masses and atomic masses have no unit because they are
ratios.

(K) Electronic Arrangement of Atoms

(a) Electrons in an atom move around the nucleus in a number of orbits called
electronic shells .
(b) Each electronic shell is given a number of 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, starting from
 24

the one closest to the nucleus.

maximum number of electrons in a shell = 2n2 (where n is the shell number)

(c) The arrangement of electrons in different shells is called the electronic

arrangement or electronic configuration.

The first shell is nearest to the nucleus, and it is the first to get filled up with
electrons. When a certain shell is full, any remaining electrons should be put
into the next outer shell and so on, until all are placed.

(d) Electronic arrangement of the first 20 elements:

Element Symbol Atomic No. Electronic Configuration

Hydrogen H 1

Helium He 2

Lithium Li 3

Beryllium Be 4

Boron B 5

Carbon C 6

Nitrogen N 7

Oxygen O 8

Fluorine F 9

Neon Ne 10

Sodium Na 11

Magnesium Mg 12
 25

Aluminium Al 13

Silicon Si 14

Phosphorus P 15

Sulphur S 16

Chlorine Cl 17

Argon Ar 18

Potassium K 19 2, 8, 8, 1

Calcium Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2

(e) Electronic diagrams

The electronic arrangement of an atom can also be represented by electronic
diagram. Electrons can be represented by dots ( ) or crosses ( ).

(L) Stability of Noble Gases Related to Their Electronic Arrangement

Noble gases (inert gases) are very stable and do not react with other elements. The
electronic arrangement of noble gases (8 electrons in the outermost shell-Octet and
2 electrons in He - duplet) is assumed to be very stable.
Atoms of other elements tend to combine with one another in order to obtain the
electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gases – octet rule.
 26

2.2 Periodic Table

(A) The Periodic Table

Chemists group elements with similar properties together. This gives rise to the
Periodic Table. Zig-zag line

PERIOD 1

PERIOD 2

PERIOD 3

PERIOD 4

PERIOD 5

PERIOD 6

PERIOD 7

Transition

Metals

(a) Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number.
(b) The horizontal row is called a period. The vertical column is called a group.
(c) Members in the same group have the same number of electrons in the
outermost shell and so similar chemical properties.
He (2)
Li (2,1) Be (2,2) B (2,3) C (2,4) N (2,5) O (2,6) F (2,7) Ne (2,8)
Na (2,8,1) Mg (2,8,2) Al (2,8,3) Si (2,8,4) P (2,8,5) S (2,8,6) Cl (2,8,7) Ar (2,8,8)
K (2,8,8,1) Ca (2,8,8,2) Br (2,8,18,7) Kr (2,8,18,8)

Group Number = Number of electrons in the outermost shell

*Exception: Group 0 have 8 outermost shell electrons (2 electrons for He)
(d) Atoms of elements in the same period have the same number of occupied
electron shells.
Period Number = Number of electron shells occupied
(e) Elements of the groups on the left (Group I and II) and the groups on the right
 27

(Group III to 0) are collectively known as main group elements. Those

placed between them are called transition elements.
(f) All elements on the right hand side of the zig-zag line are non-metals and
elements on the left hand side are metals. Elements close to the boundary are
metalloid.
(g) Several groups have special names:
Group I: Alkali metals
Group II: Alkaline earth metals
Group VII: Halogens
Group 0: Noble (Inert) gases

(B) Pattern Across the Periodic Table - Periodicity

The physical and chemical properties of the elements change across the period.
The pattern repeats themselves at approximately regular intervals – Periodicity.
(a) Melting point & boiling point
The melting point and boiling point increase from group I to group IV and
then fall to group 0.

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Melting 98 650 660 1410 44 113 -101 -189
Point (oC)
Boiling 890 1120 2450 2680 280 445 -34 -186
Point (oC)

(b) Metal / non-metal character & reactivity of elements

Across Period 2 there is a gradual change from a reactive metal (Li) through a
less reactive metal (Be), a metalloid (B), less reactive non-metal (C, N), to
reactive non-metals (O, F) and finally to a noble gas (Ar).
This pattern is repeated in Period 3.
 28

more metallic
Group I II III IV V VI VII 0
Period
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 Na Mg Al Si P S C Ar

reactive less semi-metals Less reactive Noble

metals reactive reactive non-metals gases
metals non-metals
more non-metallic

(C) Group Similarities and Trends in Chemical Properties

Elements within the same group of the Periodic table have similar chemical
properties but there is still a gradual change in chemical properties down a group.

(a) Group I Elements (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs & Fr)

Similarities:
1. They have relatively low melting and boiling points.
2. They are soft and can be cut with a knife.
3. They have low densities – Li, Na and K float on water.
4. They are reactive metals and must be stored in paraffin oil to prevent them
from reacting with air.
5. They react with water vigorously to give hydrogen gas and an alkaline
solution. e.g. sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
6. They react with non-metals to form white compounds which are soluble in
water. e.g. sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
Differences in Reactivity:
Reactivity increases down the group.
For example, Li reacts with water to give hydrogen steadily. Sodium is more
reactive and it moves rapidly on the surface of water to give hydrogen.
Potassium reacts more vigorously and burns with lilac flame.

(b) Group II Elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba & Ra)

Similarities:
1. They have relatively low melting and boiling points when compared with
other metals (except Group I metals).
2. They have low density (but higher than group I).
3. They all react with dilute hydrochloric acid to give hydrogen gas.
 29

4. They all react with non-metals.

Differences in Reactivity:
Group II metals are less reactive than Group I metals in the same period.
The reactivity increases down the group.
e.g. reaction with water
Be - no reaction with water
Mg – reacts with steam
Ca, Sr, Ba & Ra – reacts with cold water with increasing vigour.

(c) Group VII Elements (F, Cl, Br, I & At)

Similarities
1. They have low melting point and boiling point. Melting points and
boiling points increase down the group.
Fluorine – pale yellow gas
Chlorine – yellowish-green gas
Bromine – reddish brown liquid
Iodine & astatine – black solid
2. They are poisonous.
3. They are reactive non-metals.
4. they react with sodium sulphite solution are decolourized.
e.g. chlorine + sodium sulphite + water → sodium chloride + sulphuric acid
5. They react with metals.
Differences in Reactivity:
The reactivity decreases down the group.
e.g. reaction with hydrogen
Fluorine - reacts explosively with hydrogen
Chlorine - reacts more slowly with hydrogen
Bromine - reacts with hydrogen only on heating
Iodine - does not react completely with hydrogen even on heating.

(d) Group 0 Elements

Similarities:
1. They have very low melting points and boiling points. They are all
colourless gas.
2. They are stable and chemically unreactive.
Differences in Reactivity:
They are not completely inert. The reactivity increases down the group.
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Uses
1. Helium is used in balloons and airships .
2. Neon is used in advertising signs.
3. Argon is used in filling light bulbs

Exercise

1. The following table shows the atomic numbers of five elements.

Element a b c d e
Atomic number 10 11 16 18 20

(a) Which TWO elements show similar chemical properties? Explain your answer.
(b) Name an element with chemical properties similar to element b.
(c) Which element should be stored in oil in the laboratory? Explain you answer.
(d) What would happen when element e reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid?

2. The following is a part of the periodic table. Letters a to f represent some

elements.
Group
I II III IV V VI VII 0
Period 2 a b c d
3 e f

(a) In what ways are the electronic arrangements of atoms of elements a and e
(i) similar to each other?
(ii) different from each other?
(b) Which is a metalloid?
(c) Which would react with metals to form salts?
(d) Which is the most reactive non-metals?
(e) What would be observed when a piece of element e is dropped into cold water?
 31

(D) Predicting the Chemical Properties of Unfamiliar Elements

The chemical properties of an unfamiliar element can be predicted from its position
in the Periodic Table.
For example, sodium and potassium are Group I elements. Both of them react
with water vigorously. Rubidium is lower than them in the same group.
Therefore we expect it to react with water more vigorously.

Exercise
1. Caesium is a Group I element below potassium in the periodic table.
(a) How many outermost shell electron(s) is/are there in a caesium atom? Explain
your answer.
(b) Predict the state of caesium at room temperature and pressure.
(c) Predict the observation when caesium reacts with cold water.
(d) Which of the metals, potassium or caesium, is more reactive?
(e) Suggest ONE method to store caesium safely in the laboratory.

2. Barium is an alkaline earth metal below calcium in the periodic table.

(a) Predict the state of barium at room temperature and pressure.
(b) What would be formed when barium reacts with non-metals?
(c) What gas would be produced when barium reacts with water?

3. Astatine is a Group VII element below iodine in the periodic table.

(a) How many outermost shell electron(s) is/are there in an atom of astatine?
(b) Predict the state of astatine at room temperature and pressure.
(c) Is astatine a metal or non-metal?
(d) Predict whether astatine is poisonous.
 32

2.3 Chemical Bonds

(A) Meaning of Chemical Bonds

Elements combine to form compounds. Atoms in the compounds are held
together by chemical bonds. A chemical bond is a force that holds atoms
together. Atoms tend to combine with one another to obtain noble gas electronic
configuration which is stable. There are 3 main types of chemical bonds:
(1) metallic bond
(2) ionic bond
(3) covalent bond

(B) Metallic Bonding

² A metal consists of atoms packed closely together.

² Each atom gives out its outermost shell electron(s).
² These mobile electrons move freely throughout the whole metal solid.

² Metal consists of positive ions closely packed in a regular pattern and

surrounded by a ‘sea’ of mobile electrons (delocalized electrons).
² The attraction force between delocalized electrons (−ve) and metal ions (+ve)
is called metallic bond.

(C) Ionic Bonding

(a) Ionic Bond

² Ionic bond is used when metal atoms combine with non-metal atoms.
² Metal atoms tend to lose one or more outermost shell electron(s) to form
positive ions (cations) with the electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas.
 33

² Non-metals atoms tend to gain one or more electron(s) to form negative

ions (anion) with the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.
² The charge of these ions is equal to the number of electrons gained or
lost.
e.g.
(i) Na & Cl

(ii) Mg & F

(iii) Li & O
 34

² Ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from a
metal atom to a non-metal atom.
² Ionic bond is the strong electrostatic attraction force between positive
ions and negative ions.
² Ionic compound is a compound containing cations and anions.

Exercise
1. Draw the electronic diagram for the compound formed by the following pairs
of elements.
(a) magnesium and oxygen (b) sodium and hydrogen
(c) magnesium and nitrogen (d) aluminium and sulphur

2. The following table shows the atomic numbers of four elements

Element a b c d
Atomic number 2 9 14 20

(a) Which TWO elements would form an ionic compound?

(b) Draw an electronic diagram for the compound formed in (a).
 35

(b) Names and Formulae of Ions

(i) Name of Positive Ions (Cations)

1 positive charge 2 positive charge 3 positive charge

Chemical Name Chemical Name Chemical Name
formula formula formula
Li+ Lithium Be2+ Beryllium Al3+ Aluminium
Mg2+ Magnesium Fe3+ Iron (III)
Na+ Sodium Ca2+ Calcium Cr3+ Chromium (III)
K+ Potassium Zn2+ Zinc
Cu+ Copper(I) Cu2+ Copper(II)
Ag+ Silver Pb2+ Lead(II)
H+ Hydrogen Mn2+ Manganese(II)
NH4+ Ammonium Co2+ Cobalt(II)
Hg+ Mercury(I) Ni2+ Nickel(II)
Fe2+ Iron(II)
Ba2+ Barium
Hg2+ Mercury(II)

² If a metal forms only one kind of positive ion, the name of the ion is
the same as the metal. e.g. potassium ion (K+)
² Some metals (most transition elements) can form more than one kind
of positive ion. To name theses ions, write a Roman numeral in
brackets after the name of the metal to show the number of positive
charge.
e.g. Fe2+ iron (II) ion, Fe3+ iron (III) ion
² Simple ion is formed by one single atom only. Polyatomic ion is
formed by more than one atom (e.g. NH4+).
 36

(ii) Name of Negative Ions (Anions)

1 negative charge 2 negative charge 3 negative charge

Chemical Name Chemical Name Chemical Name
formula formula formula
H- Hydride O2- Oxide PO43- Phosphate
F- Fluoride S2- Sulphide N3- Nitride
Cl- Chloride SO32- Sulphite
Br- Bromide SO42- Sulphate
I- Iodide CO32- Carbonate
NO2- Nitrite CrO42- Chromate
NO3- Nitrate Cr2O72- Dichromate
OH- Hydroxide
HCO3- Hydrogencarbonate
HSO4- Hydrogensulphate
MnO4- Permanganate
ClO- Hypochlorite
CN- Cyanide

² Simple negative ions have names ending in –ide.

e.g. O2- oxide, S2- sulphide, Cl- chloride
² Polyatomic ions containing oxygen have names ending in –ate
or –ite. The one with more oxygen is named as –ate, and that with
less oxygen is named as –ite.
e.g. SO42- sulphate, SO32- sulphite; NO3- nitrate, NO2- nitrite

(c) Colour of Some Common Coloured ions

Some ions are coloured. Ions of transition metals are usually coloured.

Colours of some Ions in aqueous solutions

Ion Formula Colour
2+
Iron (II) Fe Pale green
Iron (III) Fe3+ Yellow/brown
Copper (II) Cu2+ Blue or green
Cobalt (II) Co2+ Pink
Chromium (III) Cr3+ Green
Manganese (II) Mn2+ Very pale pink/ colourless
 37

Nickel (II) Ni2+ Green

2−
Chromate CrO4 Yellow
Dichromate Cr2O72 −
Orange
Permanganate MnO4 −
Purple

Ionic compounds are made up of both positive and negative ions. If one of
these ions is coloured, the whole compound will be of that colour. For example,
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is orange while other potassium compounds
are colourless. Thus the orange must come from the dichromate ion while the
potassium ion is colourless. White ionic compounds in solid state usually
consist of colourless ions.

(d) Colours of gemstones

The colours of gemstones are due to the presence of traces amount of coloured
ion.

Gemstones Colour Ions

Jade Green Cr3+

Emerald Green Cr3+

Amethyst Purple Mn3+

Peridot Light green Fe2+

Topaz Yellow Fe3+

Turquoise Greenish blue Cu2+

(e) Migration of coloured ions:

 38

In Experiemnt I, we can see the purple spot slowly moves towards the
positive pole since the negative MnO4 ion is purple. Colourless K+ ion
−

moves towards the negative pole thus it cannot be seen.

In Experiment II, the positive blue Cu2+ ions move towards the negative
electrode while the orange Cr2O72 ions move towards the positive electrode .
−

Exercise:
A student used the following set-up to study the movement of ions.

The student placed a drop of copper (II) sulphate solution at A and a drop of
orange solution at C. The two solutions do not react.
(a) The orange colour of the solution at C is due to the anion present.
Name the ion responsible for the colour.
(b) Electricity was passed through for some time.
(i) What would be the colour change at A? Explain your answer.
(ii) What would be the colour change at B? Explain your answer.

(f) Naming Ionic Compounds

Name the positive ion first and then followed by the negative ion.
e.g.
Positive ion in the Negative ion in the Name of the compound
compound compound
Calcium ion Nitrate ion Calcium nitrate
Lithium ion Oxide ion Lithium oxide
Magnesium ion Fluoride ion Magnesium fluoride
Copper (II) ion Carbonate ion Copper (II) carbonate
Ammonium ion Chloride ion Ammonium chloride
Iron (II) ion Sulphate ion Iron (II) sulphate
 39

(g) Chemical Formulae for Ionic Compounds

Chemical formula is a way of representing a chemical substance using
chemical symbols. The chemical formula of an ionic compound shows the
types of ions present and the ratio of one type of ion to the other.
Steps in writing chemical formulae:
1. Write the symbol of the positive ion first, followed by the symbol of the
negative ion.
2. Since the net charge of the compound must be zero, find the simplest ratio
of cation to anion so that the total positive charge equals to the total
negative charge.
3. Use subscripts to show the number of ions present in a chemical formula.
4. Use brackets only for a polyatomic ion if the number of that ion in the
chemical formula is not equal to 1.

e.g. sodium chloride NaCl calcium oxide CaO

aluminium chloride AlCl3 potassium oxide K2O
calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
iron(III) sulphate Fe2(SO4)3 lithium carbonate Li2CO3

Exercise
1. Write down the names of the following compounds:
(a) KBr (b) CuO (c) MgCl2 (d) Ca(OH)2

(e) NaHCO3 (f) LiF (g) Ca(HSO4)2 (h) Ni3(PO4)2

(i) Mn(NO3)2 (j) K2SO3 (k) NaCN (l) NiSO4

2. Give the chemical formulae for the following compounds:

(a) zinc chloride (b) lead(II) sulphite (c) chromium(III) oxide

(d) silver sulphate (e) sodium nitrite (f) potassium permanganate

(g) magnesium nitride (h) iron(II) iodide (i) aluminium hydroxide

(j) magnesium hydride (k) copper(I) bromide (l) ammonium dichromate

(m) iron (III) oxide (n) sodium sulphate (o) lithium carbonate
 40

(D) Covalent Bonding

(a) Covalent Bond

Ø Atoms of non-metal elements can join together to form a neutral
molecule by covalent bond.
Ø Covalent bond is formed when one or more pairs of outermost shell
electrons are shared between the atoms to obtain the noble gas electronic
configuration.
Ø Covalent bond is the attraction force between the shared electrons and
the nuclei of the bonded atoms.

(b) Molecules- neutral particles formed by joining non-metal atoms with covalent
bond.
Molecules consisting of one kind of atom only are called molecules of
elements. e.g. He, Cl2, H2, O2, O3
Molecules with more than one kind of atom are called molecules of
compounds. e.g. H2O, CO2, NH3
Atomicity is the number of atoms in a molecule.

Atomicity Examples
monoatomic He, Ne, Ar
diatomic Cl2, H2, O2, HF
triatomic H2O, CO2, NH3, O3
polyatomic P4, S8, CH4

(c) Covalent Bond in Molecules of Elements

Example:
(1) Hydrogen molecule
Electronic configuration: H (1)
Each hydrogen atom obtains the noble gas electronic configuration by
sharing one electron with another hydrogen atom.

H2

Ø The pair of electrons shared between two atoms is called bond pair
 41

electrons.
Ø Molecular formula of a substance gives the actual number of
atoms of each element in a molecule of the substance.
e.g. H2
Ø Structural formula of a substance shows how the atoms are joined
in a molecule of the substance.
e.g. H-H (the single line represent the covalent bond)

(2) Chlorine molecule

Electronic configuration: Cl (2,8,7)
Each chlorine atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by sharing
one electron with another chlorine atom.

Cl2

(only outermost shell electrons are shown)

Ø The pair of electrons in the outermost shell that is not involved in

bonding is called lone pair electrons.

(3) Oxygen molecule

Electronic configuration: O (2,6)
Each oxygen atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by sharing
two electrons with another oxygen atom.

O2

(4) Nitrogen molecule

Electronic configuration: N (2,5)
Each nitrogen atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by sharing
three electrons with another nitrogen atom.

N2
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Ø Single bond – one pair of sharing electrons between atoms (A-A)

Ø Double bond – two pairs of sharing electrons between atoms (A=A)
Ø Triple bond –three pairs of sharing electrons between atoms (A A)

(d) Covalent Bond in Molecules of Compounds

« Compounds formed by covalent bond are called covalent compounds.

Example:
(1) Hydrogen chloride molecule
Electronic configuration: H (1), Cl (2,8,7)
Each hydrogen atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by
sharing one electron with one chlorine atom.

HCl

(2) Tetrachloromethane molecule

Electronic configuration: C (2,4), Cl (2,8,7)
Each carbon atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by sharing
one electron with each of the four chlorine atoms.

CCl4
 43

(3) Water molecule

Electronic configuration: H (1), O (2,6)
Each oxygen atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by sharing
one electron with each of the two hydrogen atoms.

H2 O

(4) Ammonia molecule

Electronic configuration: H (1), N (2,5)
Each nitrogen atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by
sharing one electron with each of the three hydrogen atoms.

NH3

(5) Carbon dioxide molecule

Electronic configuration: C (2,4), O (2,6)
Each carbon atom obtains noble gas electronic configuration by sharing
two electrons with each of the two oxygen atoms.

CO2

Exercise:
Draw the electronic diagram for the compounds formed when each of the following
pairs of elements react together.
(a) phosphorus and chlorine (b) sulphur and hydrogen
(c) nitrogen and fluorine (d) carbon and sulphur
(e) silicon and hydrogen (f) oxygen and chlorine
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(e) Dative Covalent Bond

A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the bond pair electrons
are provided by the same atom. A dative covalent bond cannot be
distinguished from other ordinary covalent bond in a molecule or polyatomic
ion. Dative covalent bond is represented by ‘ ’.

(1) Hydronium ion or Hydroxonium ion (H3+O)

(2) Ammonium ion (NH4+)

(f) Names and Formulae of Covalent Substances

There is no clear-cut rule for naming covalent compounds.
(i) Prefixes are used to indicate the number of identical parts in the formulae.
 45

mono 1 (usually omitted)

di 2
tri 3
tetra 4
penta 5
hexa 6

CO Carbon monoxide HF Hydrogen fluoride

CO2 Carbon dioxide HCl Hydrogen chloride

CCl4 Tetrachloromethane HBr Hydrogen bromide

NO Nitrogen monoxide HI Hydrogen iodide

NO2 Nitrogen dioxide H2 S Hydrogen sulphide

N2 O Dinitrogen oxide PCl3 Phosphorus trichloride

SO2 Sulphur dioxide PCl5 Phosphorus pentachloride

SO3 Sulphur trioxide

(ii) H2 O water NH3 ammonia

CH4 methane

(iii) For acids:

HNO3 nitric acid HF(aq) hydrofluoric acid
HNO2 nitrous acid HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
H2SO4 sulphuric acid HBr(aq) hydrobromic acid
H2SO3 sulphurous acid HI(aq) hydroiodic acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid

(E) Predicting the Formation of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

¨ Metals react with non-metals to form ionic compounds.

¨ Non-metals react with non-metals to form covalent compounds.

Example:
Predict (i) the type and (ii) the chemical formula of the compound formed when
each of the following pairs of elements combine:
 46

(a) calcium and fluorine (b) nitrogen and fluorine

Solution:
(a) (i) Ionic bond because calcium is a metal and fluorine is a non-metal.
(ii) Ca (2,8,8,2) Ca2+ (2,8,8) + 2e
F (2,7) + e F- (2,8)
Formula is CaF2

(b) (i) Covalent bond because nitrogen and fluorine are non-metals.
(ii) N (2,5) ⇒ each N needs 3 sharing electrons
F (2,7) ⇒ each F needs 1 sharing electron
∴ one N atom needs three F atoms
∴ Formula is NF3

Exercise:
Predict (a) the type of bonding and (b) the chemical formula of the compound
formed when each of the following pairs of elements combine:

(1) carbon and hydrogen (2) potassium and sulphur

(F) Relative Molecular Mass and Formula Mass

² Relative atomic mass is used to describe the relative masses of atoms.

² Relative molecular mass is used to describe the relative masses of molecules.
² Relative formula mass is used to describe the relative masses of ionic
compounds.

Relative molecular mass = sum of the relative atomic masses of all the
atoms present in the molecular formula

Relative formula mass = sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the formula of the ionic compound

² Relative molecular mass and formula mass have no unit.

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Example:
(1) relative molecular mass of CO2 = 12 + (16 x 2) = 44

(2) relative formula mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5

(3) relative formula mass of Ca(NO3)2 = 40 + 2 x (14 + 3 x16) = 164

(4) relative formula mass of Na2CO3·10H2O

= (23 x 2) + 12 + (16 x 3) + 10 (2 x 1 + 16)
= 286

(5) relative formula mass of SO32- = 32 + 16 x 3 = 80

(mass of 2 electrons can be neglected)

Exercise: Calculate the molecular / formula mass of the following compounds.

1. MgCl2 7. NO3 −

2. Na2Cr2O7 8. SO42 −

3. Fe2(SO4)3 9. NH4+

4. SiO2 10. NH4Cr(SO4)2·12H2O

5. N2H4 11. NH4Fe(SO4)2·12H2O

6. C24H48 12. MgCl2·6H2O

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2.4 Structure, Bonding and Properties

(A) Physical Properties and Structures

Structure of a solid substance is a description of what its constituent particles are

and about how they are arranged. The physical properties of a substance depend
on its structure.
Giant ionic structures e.g. sodium chloride
Solid substances Giant covalent structures e.g. quartz
Giant metallic structures e.g. copper
Simple molecular structures e.g. wax

(B) Structures and Properties of Giant Metallic Structures

Metal consists of atoms closely packed in a regular pattern by metallic bonds to
form a giant metallic structure.

Properties
(1) Appearance
Metals are usually shiny when they are freshly cut. This is because the
mobile electrons can absorb light and then emit it again.

(2) Strong & Hard

All metals except mercury are solids. Apart from the elements in Group I,
metals are usually strong and hard. It is because metal atoms are held together
by strong metallic bonds.

(3) High Density

Metal atoms are packed closely in the solid. Group I metals have lower density
than water because of the loose packing of atoms.

(4) High Melting Point and Boiling Point ⇒ usually solid

A lot of energy is needed to overcome the strong metallic bond.
Melting points and boiling points increase across a period because of the
increase in the number of outermost shell electrons and thus the number of
mobile electrons.
Melting points and boiling points decrease down a group because the mobile
electrons are further away from the nucleus and thus the weaker attraction
between mobile electrons and the nucleus.
 49

(5) Insoluble in any solvent

Atoms are held by strong metallic bond and is difficult to separate the
atoms.

(6) Good Electrical and Heat Conductivity

Metals are good conductors of electricity because they contain mobile electrons.
When a metal is connected to a battery, mobile electrons in the metal flow
towards the positive terminal of the battery. At the same time, electrons flow
into the metal from the negatively terminal of the battery. There is no change
in the number of electrons in the metals and thus no chemical change after the
conduction of electricity.

Metals are good conductors of heat. When one end of a metal is heated, the
mobile electrons gain energy and move faster. They transfer the energy upon
colliding with electrons from the cooler end.

(6) Malleable and Ductile

Malleable: can be hammered or rolled into thin sheet.
Ductile: can be drawn into wires.

Atoms in metals are packed in layers. When a force is applied, layer of

atoms can slip over one another without breaking the metallic bond.
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(C) Structures and Properties of Giant Ionic Structures

Ionic compounds have giant structures in which the positive and negative ions are
packed in a regular pattern. Strong ionic bonds between oppositely charged
ions hold the ions together. Ionic bond is non-directional.

(a) Sodium Chloride

The sodium and chloride ions are arranged in a cubic structure. Each sodium
ion is surrounded by 6 chloride ions and each chloride ion is surrounded by 6
sodium ions. This structure repeats millions of times to form the whole crystal.

(b) Caesium Chloride

 51

The caesium and chloride ions are also arranged in a cubic structure. Each
caesium ion is surrounded by 8 chloride ions and each chloride ion is
surrounded by 8 caesium ions. In caesium chloride, there are more chloride
ions surrounding a caesium ion because caesium ion is larger than sodium ion
and it can be surrounded by more chloride ions.

(c) Properties
(1) Strong & Hard
strong ionic bond between ions.
Ionic compounds are brittle. When a strong force is applied, one layer of
ions may be displaced. Ions with equal charges may come together and
causes the repulsion and thus split into two portions.

(2) High Melting Point and Boiling Point ⇒ usually solid

A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome the strong ionic bond
between ions.

(3) Generally Soluble in water but insoluble in non-aqueous solvents (e.g.

ether)
Ionic compound is soluble in water because the attractive forces between
the ions and water molecules is strong enough to overcome the ionic
bonds and thus cause the positive ions and negative ions to go into the
water.
 52

Some ionic compounds (e.g. CaCO3) are insoluble in water because the
attractive forces between cations and anions are stronger than those between
ions and water molecules.
Similarly ionic compounds are insoluble in non-aqueous solvents because the
attractive forces between ions and non-aqueous solvent molecules are weaker
than the ionic bonds between the positive and negative ions.

(4) Cannot conduct electricity in solid state but conduct electricity in molten
liquid or aqueous solution with decomposition
In solid, ions are in fixed position. But in molten liquid or aqueous
solution ions become mobile.

(D) Structures and Properties of Simple Molecular Structures

Substance with simple molecular structure consists of discrete molecules packed in

a regular pattern. Strong covalent bonds hold the atoms within molecule but
there is only weak van der Waals’ forces (intermolecular forces) between
molecules. Molecules with larger molecular mass or molecular size have
stronger van der Waals’ forces.

(a) The Structure of Iodine

Iodine consists of I2 molecules. There is strong covalent bond between iodine
atoms in the molecule but weak van der Waals’ force between molecules. The
structure is repeated millions of times to form the crystal.
 53

(b) The Structure of Dry Ice

Dry ice consists of separate carbon dioxide (CO2) molecules. There is strong
covalent bond between C and O atoms in the molecule but weak van der Waals’
between CO2 molecules.

(c) Properties

(1) Soft & brittle

Weak van der Waals’ forces between molecules and so a small amount
of energy is enough to separate the molecules.

(2) Low Melting Point and Boiling Point ⇒ usually gas or liquid
Small amount of energy is needed to break the weak van der Waals’
forces between molecules.
In melting only some of the van der Waals’ forces between molecules are
overcome. In boiling, all the remaining van der Waals’ are overcome.

(3) Usually slightly soluble or insoluble in water but soluble in non-aqueous

solvents (e.g. ether)
Compound with simple molecular structure is insoluble in water because the
weak attraction force between the molecule and the water molecule
cannot overcome the strong attraction force between water molecules.
 54

Compound with simple molecular structure is soluble in non-aqueous solvent

because the attraction force between molecule and non-aqueous solvent
molecule is similar to those between molecules and also those between
non-aqueous solvent molecules.

(4) Cannot conduct electricity

There are no mobile electrons or ions.

(E) Structures and Properties of Giant Covalent Structures

Substance with giant covalent structure does not consist of discrete molecules.
Instead, all atoms are joined together by strong covalent bonds throughout the
whole structure.

(a) Diamond

Diamond is a form of carbon. Each C atom is bonded with 4 other C atoms by

strong C-C single covalent bond tetrahedrally.
 55

(b) Graphite
Graphite is another form of carbon. In graphite, each C atom is bonded to 3
other carbon atoms by strong covalent bond to form hexagonal layers of
carbon atoms. There are only weak van der Waals’ between layers.

Each C atom only uses 3 of its outermost shell electrons to form 3 covalent
bonds and there is 1 electron left for each C atom. These electrons move
freely within the layers and thus there are delocalized or mobile electrons.
So graphite can conduct electricity.
Diamond and graphite are called allotropes which consist of the same element
but have different structures.

(b) The Structure of Quartz

Quartz is a crystalline form of silicon dioxide (SiO2). Each Si atom is bonded
to 4 O atoms by covalent bonds tetrahedrally. Each O atom is bonded to 2 Si
atoms by covalent bond.
 56

(c) Properties

(1) Strong & Hard

Large amount of energy are needed to break the strong covalent bonds
between the atoms.
Graphite is soft because of the weak van der Waals’ forces between
hexagonal layers. Graphite can be used as a lubricant and for making
lead pencils.

(2) High Melting Point and Boiling Point ⇒ usually solid

A lot of energy is needed to overcome the strong covalent bonds
between atoms.

(3) Insoluble in water and non-aqueous solvent

The attractive force between atoms in giant covalent structure and water
molecules or molecules of non-aqueous solvent are not strong enough to
overcome the strong covalent bonds between the atoms in the giant covalent
structure.

(4) Cannot conduct electricity except graphite

There are no mobile ions or electrons.
Graphite can conduct electricity because it has mobile electrons within
layers of carbon atoms.

(F) Comparison of Structures and Properties and Important Types of

Substances

(a) Comparison of structures and properties of substances

Giant Metallic Structrure Giant Ionic Structure Simple Molecular Structure Giant Covalent Structure

Examples Na, K, Fe, Cu NaCl, CaO, KOH H2, I2, H2O, NH3, CO2 Quartz, Diamond,

Graphite

Constituent Metal atoms Positive ions & negative ions Molecules Non-metal atoms

particles
 57

Bonding Strong metallic bonds Strong ionic bonds between Strong covalent bonds within Atoms are bonded by

between metal ions and positive and negative ions the molecules; weak van der strong covalent bonds

delocalized electrons Waals’ forces between throughout the whole

molecules structure

State at room Solid except mercury Solid Gas, liquid or solid with low Solid

temperature melting point

and pressure

Hardness Hard Hard Soft Hard except graphite

Melting and High High Low High

boiling points

Solubility Insoluble in water and Usually soluble in water but Insoluble in water but Insoluble in water and

non-aqueous solvents insoluble in non-aqueous soluble in non-aqueous non-aqueous solvents

solvents solvents

Electrical Good conductors Cannot conduct when solid, Non-conductors Non-conductors except

conductivity good conductors when graphite

molten or in aqueous

solution

(b) Predicting Properties of Substances from Their Structures

Properties of a substance can be predicted from the chemical bonding and the
structure of the compound.

Example
1. Strontium (Sr) is a Group II element below calcium in the periodic table. It
combines with chlorine to form a compound called strontium chloride.
(a) Predict the type of bonding present in strontium chloride.
(b) What type of structures does strontium chloride have?
(c) What is the chemical formula of strontium chloride?
 58

(d) Predict the following properties of strontium chloride:

(i) hardness;
(ii) melting point; and
(iii) electrical conductivity.

2. A compound Z is formed from the reaction between two elements X and Y.

The following table shows the electronic arrangement of atoms of two
elements:

Element Electronic arrangement of the atom

X 2,4
Y 2, 8, 6

(a) Predict the type of bonding present in Z.

(b) What type of structure does Z have?
(c) What is the chemical formula of Z?
(d) Predict the following properties of Z:
(i) boiling point
(ii) solubility in water; and
(iii) electrical conductivity.

(c) Predicting Structures of Substances from Their Properties

Structure of a substance can be predicted from the information about the
physical states, melting point, boiling point and electrical conductivity of the
substance.
 59

Example
1. The table below shows some properties of four substances.

Substance Melting point Boiling point Electrical conductivity

(oC) (oC) Solid state Molten state

A 776 1500 Nil Good
B 961 2160 Good Good
C 3500 4827 Nil Nil
D -7 59 -- --

Explain which substance is likely to have:

(a) a simple molecular structure;
(b) a giant metallic structure;
(c) a giant ionic structure;
(d) a giant covalent structure.

Exercise
1. Consider the following information of three substances.

Substance Melting point (oC) Electrical conductivity Solubility in water

in solid state
X 645 Poor Very soluble
Y 1083 Good Insoluble
Z 80 Poor Insoluble

(a) Explain which substance is likely to have:

 60

(i) a giant metallic structure;

(ii) a giant ionic structure.
(b) Z is formed from the reaction between two elements. Suggest whether
each of the elements is a metal or non-metal. Explain your answer.
(c) Z is soluble in 1,1,1-trichloroethane(a non-aqueous solvent). Explain.

2. A compound Z is formed from the reaction between two elements X and Y.

The electronic arrangements of atoms of the two elements are given below.

Element Electronic arrangement of the atom

X 2, 8, 8, 1
Y 2, 8, 7

(a) Predict the type of bonding present in Z.

(b) What type of structure does Z have?
(c) Predict the following properties of Z:
(i) melting point and boiling point; and
(ii) electrical conductivity.
 61

3. The diagrams below show the structures of two solids.

(a) Give the names for the solid structures of X and Y.

(b) Give an example of a substance which has the solid structure of X and Y
respectively.
(c) Which of them (X orY) has a higher melting point?
(d) Explain the difference in their melting points.

4. Silicon (Si) has the structure as shown below:

(a) What type of structure does silicon have?

(b) Silicon combines with chlorine to form a chloride X.
(i) Predict the type of bonding present in X.
(ii) Draw an electron diagram of X (showing electrons in the outermost
 62

shells only).
(iii) What is the chemical formula of X?
(c) Explain, in terms of their structures, why silicon dioxide has a higher
melting point than chloride X.
(d) Silicon carbide (SiC) has a structure similar to that of diamond.
(i) Draw the three-dimensional structure of silicon carbide.
(ii) Predict and explain the following properties of silicon carbide:
(I) hardness;
(II) melting point.

(d) Applications of Substances

Different substances have different applications according to their properties,
which depend on their structures and the attractive forces between the
constituent particles.
Examples:

Substance Use Reasons for Use

Kitchen foil Malleable, non-toxic, corrosion resistant
Soft drink cans Light, non-toxic, corrosion resistant and
Aluminium
malleable
Window frames Strong and corrosion resistant
Iron Buildings, Strong, hard, malleable and ductile, and
construction, ships, cheap
cars, bridges
Ammonium Fertilizers Highly soluble in water, high nitrogen
nitrate content
 63

Electrolytes Conducts electricity in molten form and

Sodium
aqueous state only
chloride
Seasonings Soluble in water, salty taste
Content of fire Does not support combustion, denser
Carbon
extinguishers than air
dioxide
Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide sublimes
Jewellery Shiny and sparkling, hard and expensive
Diamond Cutter and drills for Hard
stones
Electrodes High melting point and conducts
electricity
Graphite
Pencil leads Black and brittle
Solid lubricants Brittle
Quartz Raw material of Hard, high melting point, non-conductor
glass and ceramics of electricity