Part II The Microscopic World I/P.

PART II: THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD I

I. Atomic Structure
A. Elements
Substances which cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical means are called elements.

e.g. Water (H2O) can be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen, therefore, water is not an element.
Oxygen cannot be broken down into other substances, therefore, oxygen is an element.

B. Names and symbols of some elements

It is useful to give each element a chemical symbol.

Chemical Chemical
Element Latin Name Element Latin Name
Symbol Symbol
Aluminium Al Lead Plumbum Pb
Argon Ar Lithium Li
Barium Ba Magnesium Mg
Beryllium Be Manganese Mn
Boron B Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Bromine Br Neon Ne
Calcium Ca Nickel Ni
Carbon C Nitrogen N
Chlorine Cl Oxygen O
Chromium Cr Phosphorus P
Cobalt Co Platinum Pt
Copper Cuprum Cu Potassium Kalium K
Fluorine F Silicon Si
Gold Aurum Au Silver Argentum Ag
Helium He Sodium Natrium Na
Hydrogen H Sulphur S
Iodine I Tin Stannum Sn
Iron Ferrum Fe Zinc Zn

C. States of Elements
Elements exist in different states at room temperature and pressure.
e.g. Silver and sulphur are solids
Bromine and mercury are liquids
Chlorine is gas
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.2
D. Classification of elements
a.. In general, elements can be classified into metals and non-metals

Characteristics of Metals Characteristics of Non-metals

a. Shiny appearance a. Dull in appearance
b. Good conductor of heat and electricity b. Poor conductor of heat and electricity
c. Malleable and ductile c. Brittle (in solid state)
d. Hard and strong d. Not uniform in hardness and strength
e. High melting and boiling points e. Usually low melting and boiling points
f. High density f. Low density

Metal elements Non-metal elements

b. (i) Some elements can be further classified as semi-metals or metalloids 類金屬.

(ii) Metalloids have some properties similar to metals and some properties similar to non-metals.
Examples of metalloids include boron, silicon and germanium

Some properties of Silicon

State at room temperature and Solid
pressure
Melting point and boiling point High
Appearance Grey and shiny crystals, or brown powder
Electrical conductivity Crystalline form conducts electricity, brown powder
form does not
Effect of bending and hammering Brittle

(iii) Most metalloids have important uses in industry. An example is silicon which is a semi-conductor. It is
wisely used in making computer chips.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.3

Classwork
Study the following descriptions of three elements. Classify each as a metal, non-metal or metalloid. Explain you
choice in each case.
Element Description
X A yellow solid that melts at 119oC. Both the solid and liquid forms do not conduct electricity.
Y A shiny solid which can be bent or hammered into shape easily.
Z A shiny brittle solid which can conduct electricity

Answer
X is a non-metal element because it has a low melting point and it does not conduct electricity in both solid
and liquid state.
Y is a metal element because it is malleable.
Z is a metalloid because it is a brittle solid but it also can conduct electricity.

E. Basic Structure of an Atom

a. Fundamental sub-atomic particles
Atoms are made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles - protons, neutrons and electrons.

(i) The center of an atom is a very tiny and extremely dense region called the nucleus. The nucleus
contains protons and neutrons packed tightly together.
(ii) Electrons are spinning very fast around the nucleus.
(iii) There is empty space in-between the nucleus and electrons.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.4
Sub-atomic Symbol Relative mass Relative charge Position within the atom
Particle
Proton p 1 +1 inside nucleus
Neutron n 1 0 inside nucleus
Electron e 1/1837 -1 move freely at great speed around
nucleus
b. Building Up Different Atoms
(i) Different atoms have different numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons.

Atom Symbol Number of p Number of n Number of e

Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 2
Lithium Li 3 4 3
Beryllium Be 4 5 4
Boron B 5 6 5
Carbon C 6 6 6
Nitrogen N 7 7 7
Oxygen O 8 8 8
Fluorine F 9 10 9
Neon Ne 10 10 10
Sodium Na 11 12 11
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12
Aluminium Al 13 14 13
Silicon Si 14 14 14
Phosphorus P 15 16 15
Sulphur S 16 16 16
Chlorine Cl 17 18 17
Argon Ar 18 22 18
Potassium K 19 20 19
Calcium Ca 20 20 20
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.5
(ii) An atom is electrically neutral. This is because any atom always has equal numbers of protons and
electrons.

(iii) On the other hand, the number of neutrons may not be equal to that of protons.

F. Atomic Number and Mass Number

a. Atomic Number (Z) 原子序

The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom

For example, sodium has eleven protons in its nucleus and so its atomic number is equal to 11.

b. Mass Number (A) 質量數

The mass number is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in an atom.
For example, a helium atom has two protons and two neutrons in its nucleus. Therefore, the mass number of
the helium atom is equal to 4.

Atomic number = Number of protons

= Number of electrons (because the atom is electrically neutral)

Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

= Atomic number + Number of neutrons
Therefore, if we want to calculate the number of neutrons in an atom, we can do the following subtraction:

Number of neutrons = Mass number - Number of protons

To be more convenient, atomic number and mass number of an atom are usually expressed as a simplied
notation.

For example, 208

82 Pb

Which represents a lead atom having 82 protons, 82 electrons and (208-82) = 126 neutrons.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.6

G. Isotopes 同位素

a. Definition: Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have different numbers of neutrons.
35 37
e.g. 17 Cl and 17 Cl are the two isotopes of chlorine.

b. Properties of Isotopes
(i) Isotopes have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of protons and
outermost shell electrons.

(ii) Isotopes have different physical properties because they have different number of neutrons.

c. Relative isotopic mass 相對同位素質量

(i) The relative isotopic mass of a particular isotope of an element is the mass of one atom of that isotope
on the 12C = 12.00 scale.

12 12
The C isotope has been chosen as the reference standard of mass. One C atom is given a
relative mass of exactly 12.00. Masses of all other atoms are compared with the reference
standard to give their relative masses.

1
(ii) 1. The mass of a hydrogen atom ( 11 H ) is equal to of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, so is relative
12
isotopic mass is 1.

24
2. A magnesium atom ( 12 Mg ) is twice as heavy as a carbon-12 atom, so its relative isotopic mass is
24.

(iii) By approximation,
Relative isotopic mass = mass number
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.7

H. Relative Atomic Mass 相對原子質量

(i) The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the isotopic masses of its natural
isotopes on the 12C = 12.00 scale.

Example
35 37
a. Chlorine consists of two natural isotopes, 17 Cl and 17 Cl , with percentage abundance of 75.4% and
24.6% respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Ans: 35.5

20
b. Neon in the air contains two isotopes: 10 Ne and 1022 Ne . The relative atomic mass of neon is 20.2. Calculate
the relative abundance of the isotopes.
20 22
Ans: 10 Ne (90%); 10 Ne (10%)

(ii) Relative atomic mass has no unit.

(iii) Relative atomic masses of some common elements

Element Symbol Relative atomic Element Symbol Relative atomic
mass mass
Aluminium Al 27.0 Magnesium Mg 24.3
Calcium Ca 40.1 Oxygen O 16.0
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.8
Chlorine Cl 35.5 Potassium K 39.1
Copper Cu 63.5 Silver Ag 107.9
Hydrogen H 1.0 Sodium Na 23.0
Iron Fe 55.8 Sulphur S 32.1

I. Electronic Arrangement of Atoms

a. Electron shells
(i) Electrons in an atom exist in a number of regions (called electron shells) surrounding the central nucleus.

(ii) Each electron shell is given a number 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, starting from the one closest to the nucleus (i.e.
the innermost shell). Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons.

Shell Number, n Maximum number of electrons (= 2n2)

1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32
. .
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.9

(iii) Electrons in an atom are arranged into shells.

The distribution of electrons in the various shells is called Electronic Arrangement 電子排佈(or electronic

configuration 電子組態)

For example, a sodium atom has 11 electrons. The electronic arrangement of a Na atom is

2 , 8, 1
no. of
electrons in: 1st shell 2nd shell 3rd shell

Note: The writing of this notation starts from left to right.

(iv) The electronic configuration of the first 20 elements

Element Symbol Atomic number Electronic configuration
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2,1
Beryllium Be 4
Boron B 5
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.10
Carbon C 6
Nitrogen N 7
Oxygen O 8
Fluorine F 9
Neon 10
Sodium 11
Magnesium 12
Aluminium 13
Silicon 14
Phosphorus 15
Sulphur 16
Chlorine 17
Argon 18
Potassium 19
Calcium 20

(v) Electronic diagrams of atoms

Notes:
1. The nucleus is represented by the symbol of the atom.
2. Electronic shells are represented by concentric circles around the nucleus.
3. Electrons are represented by dots or crosses.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.11
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.12
II. Periodic Table
A. Groups and Periods

a. The Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements in an order of increasing _______________.

b. It is divided into:
(i) Vertical columns called ____________.

(ii) Horizontal rows called _____________.

c. Group number = number of outermost shell electrons of the atoms

Period number = number of occupied electron shells of the atoms

d. Group names

Group Group name

I
II
VII
0

e. Elements having similar chemical properties are put together in the same group.
Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties because ___________________
__________________________________.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.13
B. Patterns across the Periodic Table

Some Properties of the Elements in Period 3

Element Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
State at room
temperature and Solid Gas
pressure
Melting Point
98 650 660 1410 44 113 -101 -189
(oC)
Boiling Point
890 1120 2450 2680 280 445 -34 -186
(oC)
Electrical
Good Moderate Poor
Conductivity
Type of Element Metal Metalloid Non-Metal
Moderately Very Very Extremely
Reactivity Reactive Moderately reactive
reactive unreactive reactive unreactive

a. The elements change from metals through metalloid to non-metals.

b. The reactivity of the elements also changes across a period. Apart from the noble gases, the most reactive
elements are near the edges of the periodic table and the least reactive ones are in the center.

c.

The table above shows the different blocks of elements in the periodic table.

Elements near the zig-zag line are metalloids, for example, boron, silicon and germanium. Elements

between Groups II and III are transition metals 過渡金屬.

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.14

C. Properties of Elements

a. Group I Elements – Alkali Metals 鹼金屬

The six elements in Group I are Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and Francium. These
elements react with water to form alkalis. Therefore they are called the alkali metals.

(i) Similarities of Group I elements

1. They all have relatively low melting points and boiling points when compared with other metals.
2. They are all soft and can be cut with a knife.
3. They all have low densities – they can float on water
4. They are all reactive metals and must be stored in paraffin oil to prevent them from reacting with air and
water vapour.

5. They all react vigorously with water to give hydrogen and an alkaline solution.

(ii) Differences in reactivity of Group I elements

Group I elements are all very reactive. The reactivity of these elements increases as we move down the
group
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.15

b. Group II Elements – Alkaline Earth Metals 鹼土金屬

The six elements in Group II are Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium and Radium. They
are called as alkaline earth metals.

(i) Similarities of Group II elements

1. They all have relatively low m.p. and b.p. when compared with other metals (except Group I metals)
2. They all have low densities.
3. They are all reactive metals and react readily with dilute hydrochloric acid to give hydrogen gas.

(ii) Differences in reactivity of Group II elements

Group II elements are less reactive than Group I elements. The reactivity increases as we move down the
group.

c. Group VII Elements – Halogens 鹵素

Group VII elements include Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine and Astatine. They are called as
Halogens.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.16

(i) Similarities in properties of Group VII elements

1. They are all poisonous and smelly.
2. They are all non-metals.
3. They are all coloured.

Fluorine Yellow gas

Chlorine Greenish-yellow gas
Bromine Reddish brown liquid
Iodine Dark Brown /Dark grey solid

(ii) Differences in reactivity of Group VII elements

The reactivity of these elements decreases as we move down the group.

d. Group O Elements – Noble Gases

(i) The six elements in Group 0 are Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon. They are called noble
gases because they rarely react with other substances.

(ii) Octet Rule 八隅數規則

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.17
The octet rule says that atoms become stable by having eight electrons in their outermost shells (or two

electrons, a duplet of electrons 電子隅, in the case of some smaller atoms). Atoms of elements become

stable by achieving the same electronic arrangements as atoms of noble gases.

The noble gases are stable because their outermost shells are full of electrons.

D. Predicting the chemical properties of unfamiliar elements (Extension)

Because of the similar chemical properties of elements of the same group, it is possible to predict the chemical
properties of unfamiliar elements.

Example
1. Caesium is a Group I element below potassium in the Periodic Table.
a. How many outermost shell electron(s) is/are there in a caesium atom? Explain your answer.
b. Predict the state of caesium at room temperature and pressure.
c. Predict the observation when caesium reacts with cold water.
d. Which of the metals, potassium or caesium, is more reactive?
e. Suggest ONE method to store caesium safely in the laboratory.

Answer
a. 1 outermost shell electron. Because it is a Group I element. Group I elements have one
outermost shell electron.
b. Solid
c. It floats and moves on the surface of water.
It reacts with water vigorously and gives a colourless gas (hydrogen)
Coloured flame may be seen.
“Hissing” sound is heard.
d. Caesium is more reactive.
e. Caesium should be stored in paraffin oil.

2. Astatine is a Group VII element below iodine in the Periodic Table.

a. How many outermost shell electron(s) is/are there in an atom of astatine?
b. Predict the state of astatine at room temperature and pressure.
c. Predict whether astatine is poisonous.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.18

Answer
a. 7 outermost shell electrons
b. Solid
c. It is poisonous
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.19
III. Chemical Bonds
A. Stability and Noble gases

a. Noble gases are unreactive or stable because their outermost shell is full of electrons.

b. If an atom of an element has the same electronic configuration as that of a noble gas, it will be stable.

c. Therefore, elements having other electronic structures tend to lose or gain electron(s) in order to obtain the
stable octet structures as that of the nearest noble gases.

d. To get this special stability, atoms tend to form compounds so that they achieve the electronic
arrangement of atoms of the noble gases. The forces which bind these atoms together in a compound are
called chemical bonds.

A chemical bond refers to the strong electrostatic force (i.e. attraction between opposite charges)
holding atoms or ions together.

B. Classification of Chemical Bonds

Ionic bonds Covalent bonds Metallic bonds

formed between metal

Type of atoms atoms and non-metal formed between formed between metal
involved atoms non-metal atoms atoms

metal atoms lose their

by transfer of electrons outermost electrons to
Way to obtain
to form cations and by sharing of electrons form sea of electrons and
stability
anions positive metal ions

electrostatic attraction electrostatic attractions electrostatic attraction

Nature of the
between oppositely between nuclei and between sea of electrons
bonding
charged ions shared electrons and metal ions
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.20

IV. Ionic Bond 離子鍵

A. Formation of Ions

a. Positive ions 正離子/ Cations 陽離子

(i) Sodium atom - which has an electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 1 - tends to lose one electron from its
outermost shell in order to achieve the stable electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas, neon (2, 8).

The atom becomes positively charged when the number of protons it possesses is greater than the number
of electrons. Positive ion or cation is thus formed.

(ii) A sodium ion carries 1 positive charge and is represented by the symbol Na+. The “+” sign means 1
positive charge.

(iii) Another example

A calcium ion carries 2 positive charges and is represented by the symbol Ca2+. The “2+” sign means 2
positive charges.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.21

b. Negative ions 負離子/ Anions 陰離子

(i) For a chlorine atom with an electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 7, it tends to gain one electron to achieve the
stable electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas, argon (2, 8, 8)

The atom becomes negatively charged when the number of protons it possesses is smaller than the number
of electrons. Negative ion or anion is thus formed.

(ii) A chloride ion carries 1 negative charge and is represented by the symbol Cl-. The “ - ” sign means 1
negative charge.

(iii) Another example

An oxygen atom has an electronic arrangement of 2,6. It tends to gain two electrons in order to get the
stable electronic arrangement of a neon atom (2,8)

When an oxygen atom gains two electrons, an oxide ion forms. It carries 2 negative charges and is
represented by the symbol O2-. The “2-“ sign means 2 negative charges.

Notes:

1. Metals usually have one, two or three outermost shell electrons and they usually form ions of charge +1, +2

and +3 respectively.

2. Non-metals such as Group V, VI or VII usually form ions of charge -3, -2 and -1 respectively.
- -
3. Ions may be formed from simple atoms such as Na+, K+, Cl and I which are called simple ions. Those formed
- - +
from two or more atoms such as OH , NO3 , NH4 are called polyatomic ions.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.22

B. Ionic Bonds
a. When sodium and chlorine react together, the sodium atom loses one electron to the chlorine atom. This
transfer of electron results in the formation of two ions, Na+ and Cl-.

b. The electronic diagram ("dot and cross" diagram) shows the transfer of electrons. Ions are put inside square
brackets with the charge written at the right hand corner.

You should note that all electrons are identical. The dots and crosses are symbols only.

c. The opposite charges of sodium ion and chloride ion attract each other strongly. This type of attractive force is
called ionic bond.

Ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions which are formed by
transfer of electrons from one atom (or group of atoms) to another.

d. A simplified electronic diagram (showing the outermost shell electrons only) of a compound is as follows.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.23
xx
+ xx -
x x
Na Cl x Na Cl x
x x

xx xx

Classwork
Draw electronic diagrams to show bond formation between the following elements
1. potassium and sulphur

2. aluminium and oxygen

3. lithium and oxygen

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.24

C. Names and formulae of common ions

Positive Ions
+1 ions +2 ions +3 ions
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
+ 2+ 3+
Lithium ion Li Magnesium ion Mg aluminium ion Al
+ 2+ 3+
Sodium ion Na Calcium ion Ca iron(III) ion Fe
+ 2+ 3+
Potassium ion K Barium ion Ba chromium(III) ion Cr
+ 2+
Silver ion Ag lead(II) ion Pb
+ 2+
copper(I) ion Cu copper(II) ion Cu
+ 2+
mercury(I) ion Hg Zinc ion Zn
+ 2+
Hydrogen ion H iron(II) ion Fe
+ 2+
Ammonium ion NH4 mercury(II) ion Hg
2+
manganese(II) ion Mn
2+
cobalt(II) ion Co
2+
nickel(II) ion Ni

Negative ions
-1 ions -2 ions -3 ions
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
Fluoride ion F- Oxide ion O2- Nitride ion N3-
Chloride ion Cl- Sulphide ion S2- Phosphide ion P3-
Bromide ion Br- Sulphate ion SO42- Phosphate ion PO43-
Iodide ion I- Sulphite ion SO32-
Hydroxide ion OH- Thiosulphate ion S2O32-
Nitrate ion NO3- Chromate ion CrO42-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3- Dichromate ion Cr2O72-
ion
Hydrogensulphate HSO4- Carbonate ion CO32-
ion
Permanganate ion MnO4- Silicate ion SiO32-
Hypochlorite ion ClO-
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.25

D. Chemical names and Chemical formulae of ionic compounds

a. Writing chemical formulae for ionic compounds
+
(i) When sodium and chlorine react to form a compound, there must be one sodium ion (Na ) for each
-
chloride ion (Cl ).
+ -
Therefore, we can represent the compound by the chemical formula Na Cl or simply NaCl.

(ii) NaCl is the simplest chemical formula which gives the simplest ratio of the number of atoms or ions

present in the compound. It is also known as the empirical formula 實驗式 of the compound.

(iii) In writing the chemical formula of an ionic compound by combining the positive and negative ions. The
net charge for the compound must be zero.

(iv) Examples
1. Calcium chloride
2+
Calcium ions (Ca ) carries 2 positive charges. Chloride ion (Cl-) carries 1 negative charge. The net
charge for the compound must be zero.

2+ -
Therefore, the simplest ratio of Ca : Cl in the compound should be 1:2. The chemical formula of
calcium chloride is CaCl2.

2. Magnesium hydroxide
2+ -
Magnesium ion (Mg ) carries 2 positive charges and hydroxide ion (OH ) carries 1 negative charge.
The net charge for the compound must be zero.

2+ -
Therefore, the simplest ratio of Mg :OH in the compound should be 1:2. The chemical formula of
magnesium hydroxide is Mg(OH)2.

Notice that brackets should be used for a polyatomic ion if the number of that ion in the chemical
formula is 2 or more.

e.g. calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2,

aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3,

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.26

ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

For simple ions, there is no need to use brackets, even when the number of that ion in the
formula is 2 or more.

e.g. sodium sulphide Na2S,

aluminium oxide Al2O3,

magnesium chloride MgCl2

Classwork
Write down the chemical formulae of the following ionic compounds

Ionic Compound Chemical formula Ionic Compound Chemical formula

sodium hydroxide copper(II) sulphate

potassium sulphide potassium permanganate

sodium
calcium chloride
hydrogencarbonate
aluminium oxide iron(III) chloride

calcium oxide magnesium nitrate

magnesium sulphate aluminium sulphate

zinc nitrate ammonium sulphate

potassium phosphate copper(I) oxide

calcium carbonate lead(II) carbonate

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.27

b. Naming of Ionic Compounds

In naming of ionic compounds, the positive ion is named first, followed by the negative ion.

For example, a compound consists of sodium ions and chloride ions is named as sodium chloride. Further
examples are given below:

PbBr2 lead(II) bromide

MgF2 magnesium fluoride
CuCO3 copper(II) carbonate

Classwork
Name the following compounds

Formula Chemical name Formula Chemical name

KOH Fe2O3

LiF CuI

Al(NO3)3 NaHCO3

CuCO3 KHSO4

K2Cr2O7 NH4Cl

AgCl Na2SO3

FeSO4 MgBr2

NiCO3 CoCl2

Zn(NO3)2 BaSO4

Note: It is important to determine the names of the positive ions and negative ions of the ionic compounds.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.28

E. Colours of ions and ionic compounds

a. Many ions are colourless. However, some ions are coloured.

b. The colour of an ion may be deduced by observing the colour of solutions of a series of compounds.

Activity - To observe solutions of a series of compounds and deduce colours of some ions

Some common compounds are shown. Record the colour of every compound in aqueous state under its
formula in the following table and deduce the colour of the ions.

Example:
(i) As the aqueous (NH4)2CO3 is colourless, therefore, the colour of NH4+ and CO32- are both colourless.

(ii) As the aqueous CuCO3 is blue, and the colour of CO32- is colourless, therefore, the colour of Cu2+ is blue.

Carbonate Chloride Sulphate Nitrate Dichromate Permanganate

ion Ion Ion Ion ion ion
(colourless) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Ammonium
(NH4)2CO3 NH4Cl (NH4)2SO4 NH4NO3 (NH4)2Cr2O7
ion
(colourless) (colourless) ( ) ( ) ( )
(colourless)
Copper(II)
CuCO3 CuCl2 CuSO4 Cu(NO3)2
ion
(blue) (blue) ( ) ( )
(blue)
Iron(II) ion
FeSO4
( )
( )

Iron(III)
FeCl3 Fe(NO3)3
ion
( ) ( )
( )
Potassium
K2CO3 KCl K2SO4 KNO3 K2Cr2O7 KMnO4
ion
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Sodium ion Na2CO3 NaCl Na2SO4 NaNO3 Na2Cr2O7

Ion ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.29
( )
Nickel(II)
NiSO4
Ion
( )
( )

c. Colours of some common ions in aqueous solutions:

Name Symbol for ion Colour

copper(II) ion Cu2+ blue or green
iron(II) ion Fe2+ green
iron(III) ion Fe3+ brown or yellow
cobalt(II) ion Co2+ pink
nickel(II) ion Ni2+ green
chromium(III) ion Cr3+ green
chromate ion CrO42- yellow
dichromate ion Cr2O72- orange
manganese(II) ion Mn2+ very pale pink
permanganate ion MnO4- deep purple

d. Notice that the transition metals usually form coloured ions, which may be cations (e.g. Cu2+ ion) or
polyatomic anions (e.g. permanganate ion MnO4-).

On the other hand, elements in main groups (Gp 1 to Gp 0) in the Periodic Table form colourless ions.

Positive Ions
+1 ions +2 ions +3 ions
Name Colour Name Colour Name Colour
lithium ion, Li+ colourless magnesium ion , Mg2+ colourless aluminium ion, Al3+ colourless

sodium ion, Na+ colourless calcium ion, Ca2+ colourless

potassium ion, K+ colourless barium ion, Ba2+ colourless

silver ion, Ag+ colourless lead(II) ion, Pb2+ colourless

hydrogen ion, H+ colourless zinc ion, Zn2+ colourless

ammonium ion, NH4+ colourless

Negative ions
-1 ions -2 ions -3 ions
Name Colour Name Colour Name Colour
fluoride ion, F- Colourless oxide ion, O2- Colourless nitride ion, N3- Colourless
chloride ion, Cl- Colourless sulphide ion, S2- Colourless phosphide ion, P3- Colourless

bromide ion, Br- Colourless sulphate ion, SO42- Colourless phosphate ion, PO43- Colourless
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.30

iodide ion, I- Colourless sulphite ion, SO32- Colourless

hydroxide ion, OH- Colourless carbonate ion, CO32- Colourless

nitrate ion, NO3- Colourless
nitrite ion, NO2- Colourless
hydrogencarbonate ion, HCO3- Colourless
hydrogensulphate ion, HSO4- Colourless
e. Colour of aqueous ionic compounds

Positive Ion (colour) Negative ion (colour) Aqueous Ionic Compound (colour)
+ -
Na (colourless) Cl (colourless) NaCl (colourless)
2+ 2-
Cu (blue) SO4 (colourless) CuSO4 (blue)
K+ (colourless) MnO4- (purple) KMnO4 (purple)
3+ -
Fe (brown) Br (colourless) FeBr3 (brown)
2+ 2-
Cu (blue) Cr2O7 (orange) CuCr2O7 (brown)

f. Example
A student used the following set-up to study the movement of ions.

microscope slide filter paper moistened with tap water

A B C

+ -

d.c. power supply

The student placed a drop of copper(II) sulphate solution at A and a drop of orange solution at C. The two
solutions do not react.

a. The orange colour of the solution at C is due to the anion present. Name the ion responsible for the colour.
b. Electricity was passed through for some time.
(i) What would be the colour change at A? Explain your answer.
(ii) What would be the colour change at B? Explain your answer.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.31

Answer
a. Dichromate ion Cr2O72-
b. (i) The blue colour fades. The blue copper(II) ions move towards the negative electrode.
(ii) A green colour appeared. The orange negative ions move towards the positive electrode
while the blue positive ions move towards the negative electrode. They mix to give a
green colourn at B.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.32

V. Covalent Bonds 共價鍵

A. Formation of Covalent Bonds by Sharing of electrons
a. Let us take chlorine as an example.
The chlorine atom, Cl, is very unstable. Its outermost shell contains only 7 electrons. Electron transfer between
chlorine atoms cannot occur here, as they all tend to gain electron, and no one is willing to lose it.

However, by sharing of electrons, a chlorine molecule is formed, in which each chlorine atom gas a stable
octet in the outermost shell.

b. Electronic diagram showing sharing of two electrons in the formation of a chlorine molecule* (only outermost
shell electrons are shown):

*Non-metal atoms join together by sharing of electrons to form a group which is called as a Molecule 分子.

c. Definition:
Covalent bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between shared electrons (negatively charged) and
two nuclei (positively charged) of the bonded atoms.

d. Molecular formulae and Structural Formulae

(i) A shared pair of electrons makes a single covalent bond.
It is often denoted by a stroke (¾) between the atomic symbols.

e.g. A chlorine molecule Cl2 can be written as “Cl─Cl ”

(ii) Cl2 is the molecular formula of chlorine, while Cl¾ Cl is the structural formula of chlorine.

1. The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the actual number of each
kind of atom(s) in one molecule of the substance.

2. The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows how the atoms are joined up
in one molecule of the substance.

(iii) Generally, when we say the formula of a molecular substance, we mean its molecular formula.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.33

B. Covalent bond formation in some molecules

a. Hydrogen molecule

In the molecule, each hydrogen atom forms a duplet (not an octet) which is the stable electronic configuration
of the noble gas helium.

A single covalent bond is formed with the sharing of 1 pair of electrons between the two atoms.

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

H2 H－H

b. Oxygen molecule

A double covalent bond is formed with the sharing of 2 pairs of electrons between the two atoms.
An oxygen molecule can be shown as O = O.

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

O2 O=O
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.34

c. Nitrogen molecule

A triple covalent bond is formed with the sharing of 3 pairs of electrons between the two atoms.

A nitrogen molecule can be shown as N≡N.

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

N2 NºN

d. Hydrogen chloride molecule

After reaction, the hydrogen atom forms a duplet (not an octet) which is the stable electronic configuration of
helium.

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.35

e. Water molecule

There are two unshared pairs of electrons in the valence shell of oxygen. The unshared pairs also called
lone pairs.

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

f. Ammonia molecule

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.36

g. Tetrachloromethane molecule 四氯甲烷

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

h. Carbon dioxide molecule 二氧化碳

Molecular formula: Structural formula:

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.37

C. Writing chemical formulae of covalent compounds

We can use the following steps to work out the chemical formulae (molecular formulae) of covalent
compounds.

Example 1
Step Compound formed from
hydrogen and oxygen
1. Write down the electronic configurations of the atoms H O
involved 1 2,6

2. Decide the number of electrons needed to get a stable hydrogen atom needs 1 electron, while
electronic arrangement. oxygen atom needs 2 electrons
1 2
H O
3. Decide the number of each type of atoms in one molecule
1 2
(cross multiply the numbers and the symbols). H O
=H2 =O1

4. Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio if necessary. H2O

(Omit the number of 1 for oxygen)

Example 2
Step Compound formed from
carbon and hydrogen
1. Write down the electronic configurations of the atoms C H
involved 2,4 1
2. Decide the number of electrons needed to get a stable carbon atom needs 4 electrons, while
electronic arrangement. hydrogen atom needs 1 electron
4 1
C H
3. Decide the number of each type of atoms in one molecule 4 1
(cross multiply the numbers and the symbols). C H
=C1 =H4
4. Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio if necessary. CH4
(Omit the number of 1 for carbon)
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.38

Classwork
Draw the electronic diagrams (showing the valence shell only) and give the molecular formulae, structural
formulae for the molecules formed by

a. F atoms b. Br atoms c. I atoms

d. H and Si atoms e. H and P atoms f. H and S atoms
g. H and Br atoms h. C and S atoms i. C and Cl atoms
j. N and F atoms k P and Cl atoms l. P and Br atoms
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.39

Example
HKCEE 1995 Q4 (Essay Question)
“When atoms combine, they tend to attain noble gas electronic structures.”
Discuss how atoms can attain the noble gas electronic structure. In your answer, you should give suitable
examples and the electronic structures of the products formed.
(8 marks)
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.40

Answer
Chemical Knowledge (5 marks)
Atoms become stable by attaining noble has electronic structures. They can achieve that by losing,
gaining or sharing of electrons.

Consider the formation of chlorine molecule from two chlorine atoms. A chlorine atom has an
electronic configuration of 2,8,7. It needs one more electron to obtain the noble gas electronic structure.
In order to obtain stable electronic structure, each chlorine atom will give one electron for sharing.

xx xx
x x
x Cl x + Cl x Cl x Cl

xx xx

Consider the formation of sodium chloride from sodium atom and chlorine atom. A sodium atom has an
electronic configuration of 2,8,1. It can obtain a noble gas electronic structure by losing one electron. A
chlorine atom has an electronic configuration of 2,8,7. It can obtain a stable electronic structure by
gaining one electron.
When sodium and chlorine react, one sodium atom will transfer one electron to the chlorine atom to
form sodium ion (a positive ion) and chloride ion (a negative ion).

+ -
xx

x x x x
Na + Cl x Na x Cl
xx

Effective Communication (3 marks)

A. The ability to present ideas in a precise manner (this mark should not be awarded to answers which
contains a lot of incorrect / superfluous materials)
B. The ability to present ideas in a systematic manner (i.e. the answer is easy to follow)
C. The ability to present answer in paragraph form and to express ideas using full sentences.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.41
VI. Metallic Bond
a. Metallic structure and Metallic bond
(i) A metal consists of atoms packed closely together.
The loosely held outermost shell electrons get separated from their atoms.

(ii) This results in a lattice of positive ions, and free electrons (or delocalized electrons) which move freely
throughout the whole metal structure. Thus a giant metallic structure is formed, with a "sea" of free
electrons around a giant lattice of metal ions.

b. The electrostatic attraction between free electrons (negatively charged) and metal ions (positively charged)
is called metallic bond.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.42
VII. Relative Molecular Mass and Formula Mass

A. Relative Molecular Mass

a. Just as the relative atomic mass is used to describe the relative masses of atoms, the relative molecular mass

is used to describe the relative masses of molecules.

b. Relative molecular mass of an element or compound

= Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms present in one molecule of the element or compound

c. Example
Given: Relative atomic mass of H = 1.0, C=12.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, Cl = 35.5

1. Relative molecular mass of nitrogen molecule (N2)

= 14.0 ´ 2
= 28.0

2. Relative molecular mass of water molecule (H2O)

= 1.0 + 16.0 ´ 2
= 18.0

3. Relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide (CO2)

=

4. Relative molecular mass of chlorine molecule ( )

=

5. Relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride ( )

=

6. Relative molecular mass of ammonia ( )

=
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.43

B. Formula Mass

a. Ionic compounds consists of anions and cations. Since ionic compounds do not contain molecules, we use
Formula mass to describe the relative masses of ionic compounds.

b. Example
Given: Relative atomic masses of Na = 23.0, K = 39.0, Ca = 40.0, Cl = 35.5, C = 12.0, O = 16.0,
H = 1.0, Cu = 63.5, N = 14.0

1. Formula mass of potassium chloride (KCl)

= 39.0 + 35.5
= 74.5

2. Formula mass of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

= 23.0 ´ 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 ´ 3
= 106.0

3. Formula mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

=

4. Formula mass of calcium oxide ( )

=

5. Formula mass of calcium hydroxide ( )

=

6. Formula mass of copper(II) nitrate ( )

=

7. Formula mass of ammonium carbonate ( )

=
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.44
VIII. Structure, Bonding and Properties
A. Structures of Substances

All substances exist as either giant structures 巨型結構 or molecular structures 分子結構.

1. Giant structures
a. Giant structures include:

• giant ionic structures 巨型離子結構 e.g. sodium chloride

• giant covalent structures 巨型共價結構 e.g. diamond, quartz

• giant metallic structures 巨型金屬結構 e.g. copper

b. In a giant structure, millions of particles (atoms or ions) are joined together by strong chemical bonds. A
huge network is formed and the structure is difficult to break.

2. Molecular structures
a. Molecular structures include:
• simple molecular structures e.g. hydrogen, chlorine, carbon dioxide, water

• macromolecules 巨大分子 e.g. polyethene (plastic)

b. Simple molecular structures consist of separate molecules. The atoms within the molecules are strongly
bonded together by covalent bonds. The intermolecular forces between the molecules are weak.

c. Macromolecules are very big molecules containing thousands of atoms joined together by covalent
bonds.

B. Structure and Properties

1. Giant Ionic Structures
a. Ionic compounds are made from the regular packing of positively and negatively charged ions. Because
of this, ionic compounds are described as giant ionic structures.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.45

Structure of sodium chloride Each Na+ is surrounded Each Cl- is surrounded

by 6 Cl- by 6 Na+

b. We can also show the structure of sodium chloride by using a ball-and-stick model.

c. Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

(i) Melting points and boiling points
Ø Ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points.

It is because the ions are packed in a giant lattice and the force of attraction between the ions (i.e.
ionic bond) is strong.. Much energy is needed to overcome the attraction.

Ø For example, the melting point of sodium chloride is 808oC and the boiling point is 1465oC;
the melting point of magnesium oxide is 2852 oC and the boiling point is 3600 oC.

(ii) Solubility in water

Ø Many ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in non-aqueous solvents such as
1,1,1-trichloroethane.

Ø When sodium chloride is put into water, there is attraction between the ions of sodium chloride and
the water molecules. This cause the sodium and chloride ions to be removed from the lattice. The
ions then move into the solution.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.46
Ø No such attraction exists between the ions of sodium chloride and the 1,1,1-trichloroethane
molecules.

Some ionic compounds such as calcium sulphate are insoluble in water. This is because the attractive
forces between ions in the solid are stronger than those between the ions and the water molecules.

(iii) Electrical conductivity

Ø Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution. They do not conduct
electricity when in solid state.

Ø It is because the ions become mobile when molten or in aqueous solution.

(iv) Hardness
Ionic compounds like sodium chloride are hard. This is due to the strong ionic bonds between oppositely
charged ions.
(Ionic compounds are hard but brittle.)

2. Giant Covalent Structures

These are substances made from millions of atoms joined together by strong covalent bonds.
Common examples are quartz, diamond and graphite.

Diamond and graphite are different forms of the same element carbon, i.e. carbon is said to exhibit allotropy

同素異構, diamond and graphite are the allotropes 同素異構體 of carbon.

a. Diamond
(i) Diamond is a form of carbon.

(ii) In diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by 4 other carbon atoms in the form of a tetrahedron. Each
carbon atom forms covalent bonds with 4 other carbon atoms around it. Hence the structure consists of a
network of covalent bonds.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.47

b. Graphite
(i) Graphite is a much more common form of carbon than diamond. Pencil 'lead' is made from graphite. Like
diamond, graphite has a giant covalent structure, but even so its properties are very different. Graphite is soft
and slippery, and it conducts electricity.

(ii) Structure of Graphite

In graphite, each layer contains millions of carbon atoms. Within each layer, every carbon atom is joined to
three others by strong covalent bonds. These atoms form a pattern of interlocking hexagonal rings. The
carbon atoms are difficult to separate from one another, so graphite, like diamond, has a high melting point.

(iii) Physical Properties of Graphite

1. Graphite is a good electrical conductor
Each carbon atom in graphite forms covalent bonds with three other carbon atoms. Since each carbon atom
has 4 outermost shell electrons, 1 electron is "free". The free electrons of each carbon atoms can move
between the layers. Graphite conducts electricity because of these free electrons.

2. Graphite is soft and slippery

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.48
The forces of attraction between layers are the weak van der Waals' forces. They are able to slide easily
over one another, rather like a pack of cards. This makes graphite soft and slippery. When you write with
a pencil, layers of graphite flake off and stick to the paper.

c. Quartz
(i) Quartz is silicon dioxide, SiO2.

(ii) Structure of Quartz

In quartz, every silicon atom is joined to four oxygen atoms by strong covalent bonds. Every oxygen atom is
also joined to two silicon atoms. This arrangement goes on continuously. The structure consists of a network
of covalent bonds.

(iii) Physical Properties of Substances with Giant Covalent Structures

1. Hardness
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.49
Substances with giant covalent structures consists of a network of covalent bonds. This makes them very
hard (except graphite). For example, instruments for cutting glass contain diamond.

2. Melting points and boiling points

Substances with giant covalent structures have high melting points and boiling points. It is because the
forces of attraction between the atoms are strong (the covalent bonds). Much energy is needed to overcome
the large number of bonds with great attractive forces.

3. Solubility in water
They are insoluble in water. It is because the atoms are held together strongly and it is very difficult to
separate the atoms.

4. Electrical conductivity
Since the bonding electrons in substances with giant covalent structure cannot move (i.e. no free ions or
free electrons) , they do not conduct electricity in solid state or liquid state (except graphite).

d.
Some properties of quartz and diamond
Substance State at room temperature and Melting Point Solubility in Electrical
o
pressure ( C) water conductivity
Quartz Solid 1610 Insoluble Non-conductor
Diamond Solid 3500 Insoluble Non-conductor

3. Simple Molecular Structures

Most non-metal elements (e.g. hydrogen H2, oxygen O2, chlorine Cl2, iodine I2 etc.) and covalent compounds
(carbon dioxide CO2, water H2O, methane CH4, ammonia NH3) are composed of simple molecules.

In simple molecular substances, the atoms are joined together within the molecule by strong covalent bonds,
but the separate molecules are attracted to each other by much weaker intermolecular forces (e.g. van der
Waals' forces).

a. Iodine
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.50

The iodine molecules are packed close to on another in a regular pattern. Weak van der Waals’ forces hold the
molecules together. The pattern is repeated millions of times, and the result is a crystal.

b. Dry ice
Dry ice consists of separate carbon dioxide molecules.

In each molecule, strong covalent bonds hold the carbon and oxygen atoms together. The carbon dioxide
molecules are packed close to one another in a regular pattern. Weak van der Waals’ forces hold the
molecules together.

Properties of Simple Molecular Substances

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.51
(i) Melting points and boiling points
Simple molecular substances have low melting points and boiling points. This is because the molecules
have weak forces between them (i.e. weak intermolecular forces) and can be separate easily.
e.g. melting point of oxygen is -218oC and the boiling point is -183oC.

(ii) Solubility in water

Simple molecular substances are usually slightly soluble or insoluble in water but very soluble in
non-aqueous solvents (e.g.1,1,1-trichloroethane).

Let us take iodine as an example. Iodine is slightly soluble in water but very soluble in
1,1,1-trichloroethane. Water molecules have strong intermolecular forces. The weak attractive forces
between iodine and water molecules are not strong enough to separate the water molecules.

On the other hand, 1,1,1-trichloroethane molecules have weak intermolecular forces similar to those
between iodine molecules. Hence iodine and1,1,1-trichloroethane molecules can mix together easily.

(iii) Electrical conductivity

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.52
Simple molecular substances do not conduct electricity no matter in solid state or liquid state because they
do not contain mobile electrons or ions.

Note: Aqueous solutions of some substances with simple molecular structures conduct electricity.
This is because mobile ions are formed when these substances dissolve in water. Examples
include sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, etc.

(iv) Hardness
Solid simple molecular substances are usually soft because the forces of attraction between the molecules
are weak (i.e. weak intermolecular forces i.e. van der Waals’ forces).

4. Giant Metallic Structure

In a metal, atoms are packed tightly together in a regular pattern to form a giant structure. This type of giant
structure is called a giant metallic structure.

a. Properties of metals
(i) Density
Metals generally have high densities due to the close packing of their atoms.

(ii) Melting point

 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.53
The atoms in metals are packed closely and the metallic bonds holding them together are very strong. To
melt a piece of metal, a lot of heat energy is needed to overcome the strong attraction forces.

(iii) Electrical and heat conductivities

Metals are good conductors of electricity and conductors of heat due to the movement of mobile electrons
in a metal.

(iv) Malleability 展性 and ductility 延性

Metals are both malleable and ductile. When metals can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets, they are
malleable. Ductile metals can be drawn into wires.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.54
As a metal is stuck by a hammer, the atom layers slide through the “sea” of electrons to new positions
without breaking the metallic bonds.

b. The strength of metallic bond of sodium, magnesium and aluminium

(i)
Metal Sodium Magnesium Aluminium
o o
Melting point 98 C 650 C 660 oC

(ii) Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals. The strength of the metallic bond depends on the number of
delocalized electrons in the metal structure.

Sodium has one outermost shell electron, magnesium has two, while aluminium has three. The strength of
metallic bond and hence the melting point increases from sodium to aluminium.

C. Predicting the properties of substances

1. A compound Z is formed from the reaction between two elements X and Y. The electronic arrangements of
atoms of the two elements are given below.
Element Electronic arrangement
X 2,8,8,1
Y 2,8,7

a. Predict the type of bonding present in Z.

b. What type of structure does Z have?
c. Predict the following properties of Z:
(i) melting point and boiling point; and
(ii) electrical conductivity
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.55

Answer
a. Ionic bond
b. Giant ionic structure
c. (i) high melting point and boiling point
(ii) conduct electricity only when in molten state or liquid state.

2.

Structure A Structure B Structure C

a. Name three substances which have the same structures as A, B and C respectively.
b. Name the type of bonding between particles in
(1) B, (2) C.
c. In terms of the forces between particles, explain why there is a large difference in melting point between
(1) A and B,
(2) A and C.
In each case, state which of the two solids is expected to have the higher melting point.

Answer
a. Structure A: Iodine
Structure B: Sodium chloride
Structure C: Diamond
b. (1) ionic bond
(2) covalent bond
c. (1) B has a higher melting point.
The attraction between the ions in structure B is ionic bond. The attraction between the
molecules in structure A is van der Waals’ forces. The ionic bond is much stronger than
the van der Waals’ forces. Therefore, the melting point of B is much higher than that of
A.
(2) C has a higher melting point.
The attraction between the atoms in structure C is covalent bond. The attraction between
the molecules in structure A is van der Waals’ forces. The covalent bond is much
stronger than the van der Waals’ forces. Therefore, the melting point of C is much
higher than that of A.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.56

3. The table below shows some properties of four substances.

Electrical conductivity
Substance Melting point (oC) Boiling point (oC)
Solid state Molten state
A 776 1500 Nil Good
B 961 2160 Good Good
C 3500 4827 Nil Nil
D -7 59 - -

Explain which substance is likely to have:

a. a simple molecular structure;
b. a giant metallic structure;
c. a giant ionic structure;
d. a giant covalent structure

Answer
a. D. Because D has a low melting point and boiling point.
b. B. Because B has a high melting point and boiling point. B also can conduct electricity in
solid state.
c. A. Because A has a high melting point and boiling point. A only can conduct electricity in
molten state, but does not conduct electricity in solid state.
d. C. Because C has a very high melting point and boiling point. However, C does not conduct
electricity in both solid state and molten state.

4. HKCEE 1998 Q7a

Both carbon and silicon are Group IV elements in the Periodic Table. The diagram below show the structures
of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) and quartz (a form of silicon dioxide):

(i) With reference to the structures of the two substances, explain why quartz is a solid which melts at a high
temperature, while carbon dioxide is a gas at room temperature.
(ii) With the help of a labeled diagram, suggest how to show experimentally that dry ice sublimes to give
gaseous carbon dioxide.
(iii) Sand (an impure form of quartz) and limestone are raw materials used for making glass.
(1) Name the main chemical constituent of limestone.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.57
(2) Suggest ONE reason why glass had been used by mankind for a long time.
(3) Suggest ONE reason why glass bottles are preferred to plastic bottles for the storage of champagne.
(9 marks)

Answer
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.58
Appendix One

Dative Covalent Bond (Coordinate bond) 配價鍵

The two electrons which form a covalent bond do not necessarily have to come from each atom; both
may originate from one of the atoms.

Dative covalent bond occurs when one atom provides both of the electrons necessary for the
formation of a single covalent bond. Once the dative bond is formed it is indistinguishable from other
covalent bonds of the same type.

a. Ammonium ion NH4+

When ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to form ammonium chloride, a dative covalent
bond is formed between the lone pair of electrons on the N atom in NH3 and a H+ ion from HCl.

The symbol “®” is used to represent the dative covalent bond.

b. Hydronium ion (H3O+)

When an acid is dissolved in water, hydrogen ions H+ are formed.

The H+ ion is attracted to the unsharded electrons of oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a
dative covalent bond. A more stable ion, hydronium ion H3O+, is obtained.
 Part II The Microscopic World I/P.59

Appendix Two
Structure of caesium chloride CsCl

Since caesium ion is larger in size than the sodium ion, each Cs+ ion is surrounded by 8 Cl- ions and
each Cl- ion is in turn surrounded by 8 Cs+ ions.