Lecture outline

Map scale

Map projection

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 GMC 110, Cartography
Scale and projections – Lecture 1
Prepared by Serena Coetzee
Presented by Magda Roos
Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology,
University of Pretoria

Quarter 4, 2024

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Learning outcomes for Q4
• understand, interpret, and apply the geodetic
Today

principles on which maps are based;

• design and create maps for a specific purpose, making

appropriate use of space, colours, fonts and symbols;
• critique the design of a map;

• design and create a thematic map for a specific

purpose;
• critique the design of a thematic map;

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 GMC 110 – Scale and projections
Learning Objectives
• After completion of this topic, you should be
able to
Today– To understand what a scale is and how it
influences your map design
– To understand what a map projection is and how
it influences your map design
Today– Choose an appropriate scale and projection for a

specific map

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map scale
• The size of the map compared to the size of
the real world
– All maps are drawn to a scale
• Reduces the information about the earth to a
manageable and comprehensible size
– Represented as
1. ratio,
2. words or
3. graphically

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map scale:
ratio or representative fraction (RF)
• 1/25,000,000
– 1 unit on the map
represents 25 million
units in the real world
– The map is 25
millionth of the size of
the real world

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map scale:
ratio or representative fraction (RF)
• 1/6,000,000
– 1 unit on the map
represents 6,000,000 units
in the real world
– The map is a 1/6 millionth
of the size of the real
world

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map scale:
ratio or representative fraction (RF)
• 1/7,000,000
– 1 unit on the map
represents 7,000,000 units
in the real world
– The map is 1/7 millionth of
the size of the real world

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map scale:
verbal or word scale
• “1cm represents 250 km”
– 1cm on the map
represents 25km in the
real world

Scale: 1cm equals 250km

Scale: 1cm equals 250km
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 Map scale:
graphic scale / bar scale / linear scale
• A line or bar on the map is labelled with the
corresponding real world distances

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map scale:
graphic scale / bar scale / linear scale
• A line or bar on the map is labelled with the
corresponding real world distances

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map scale:
graphic scale / bar scale / linear scale
• A line or bar on the map is labelled with the
corresponding real world distances
 Map scale:
graphic scale / bar scale / linear scale
• A line or bar on the map is labelled with the
corresponding real world distances
 Map scale:
graphic scale / bar scale / linear scale
• A line or bar on the map is labelled with the
corresponding real world distances
Small-scale map shows a large area
1/25,000,000 = 0.00000004
 small number
 small scale
 shows large area

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Large-scale map shows a small area
1/2,000 = 0.0005
 big(ger) number
 large scale
 shows small area

Scale 1:2000

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Maps at different scales
 Representing scale
• If a map is printed larger or smaller than the
original size, the representative fraction (RF)
and verbal scale will no longer be accurate
• The size of the graphical scale increases/
reduces in the same proportion as the rest of
the map
– therefore, use only graphical scales for maps to be
displayed on screens, e.g. PDF maps

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Scale adjusts as you
zoom in or out
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
Scale adjusts as you
zoom in or out
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 Choice of scale influenced by…
1. Purpose of the map and user needs
– Hiking map needs more detail than map with
overview of a nature reserve
2. Resolution
– Lots of details to be displayed  larger scale
3. Format
– e.g. A4 is specified, insets may be required to
show all details

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Compilation of data
• Collecting and selecting information required
for the map
1. Decide what data are needed
2. Gather those data

We need two kinds of data

1. Base data
2. Thematic/Primary data

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Base data
• Base data
– Background reference data for the theme of the
map
– Help to read and interpret the map
• Too much:
– clutter causes confusion
• Too little:
– difficult to relate the information on the map to the real world

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Base data
• Internal base data
– geographic information in the subject area, e.g.
administrative boundaries, coastlines, cities,
transportation routes, placenames, mountains,
rivers, lakes
– Help to relate the information to the real world
• External base data
– Title, legend, scale, north arrow, grid text
– Explanatory function
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 Roads, town and province names
are internal base data for orientation

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection Source: Huisamen (2017)

 For an international
audience

Location of O. R. Tambo District Municipality in the Eastern Cape, South

Africa (Data sources: Municipal Demarcation Board, OpenStreetMap,
Statistics South Africa and NAVTEQ)
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 For a South African
audience

Source: Snyman (2017)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Sources for thematic/primary data:
field studies

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection Source: Huisamen (2017)

 Sources for thematic/primary data:
statistical data
• Census 2011
– Census 2021, to be held in 2022
• Community surveys
• Household surveys
• etc.

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Sources for thematic/primary data:
statistical data

Source: https://gcro.ac.za/
 Sources for thematic/primary data:
Download OpenStreetMap data Internet
www.openstreetmap.org
Sources for thematic/primary data:
Internet

Links on GGM website

https://www.up.ac.za/geography-geoinformatics-and-meteorology/article/2983517/external-geoportals
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 Also applies to
geospatial information
for your maps

https://guides.library.cornell.edu/evaluate_news/infographic
 Copyright ethics
• Make sure you have permission to use the data
– Read the license, terms and conditions
• OpenStreetMap data is licensed as follows:
– You are free to copy, distribute, transmit and adapt our data, as long as
you credit OpenStreetMap and its contributors. If you alter or build upon
our data, you may distribute the result only under the same licence.
• For the City of Tshwane the following is stated
– All down-loadable content on the interactive “Maps and GIS” homepage
is freely available.
– Commercial exploitation of any of the content is strictly forbidden.
• Acknowledge the source of the data
– Either on the map or in the text surrounding it (in a
publication)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Generalization
• Generalization
– Cartographic procedure that reduces the amount
of information presented in order to create a
clearer communication
• Allows the subject of the map to stand out
– Contributes to clearly conveying the purpose /
message

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Generalization
• Goals
– Preserve geographic patterns
– Stress thematic information

• Accuracy
– Locational or positional accuracy, but the scale does
not always allow absolute accuracy
• Truth
– Given that accuracy is not possible and the map is a
symbolization / abstraction, truth means showing the
essence of patterns and relationships

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 This textbook:
selection, simplification, smoothing, grouping, classification,
exaggeration, displacement (and symbolization)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Selection
• Choosing which features are shown (and
which not)
– Categories of data to be shown
– Amount of detail to be shown for each category

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Simplification
• Weed out points in a line or polygon to create
a simpler shape
– e.g. coastline, is simplified on a thematic map or if
the scale does not allow all details

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Smoothing
• Replace sharp and complex forms by
smoother ones
– e.g. a road with many small turns or a river with many meanders is
smoothed
Simplification and smoothing
Simplification and smoothing
 Grouping
• Many small features are often grouped
– e.g. individual trees are grouped into a forest
– e.g. many buildings into a larger building
 Classification
• Impossible to show all Original Generalized
into classes
numbers, then classify 1 1-5

them into groups 5 1-5

6 6-10
– We will look at this in more 2 1-5
detail for thematic maps… 6 1-5
9 6-10
2 1-5
5 1-5
3 1-5
8 6-10
4 1-5
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 Exaggeration
truth
• Relative enlargement of an object to preserve
its characteristics when these would be lost if
the object were shown at scale

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Displacement
• Moving of objects to preserve their visibility
and distinctiveness

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Exaggeration and displacement

The alley was widened (exaggeration)

Linear features were compressed to show the three features in a narrow valley (displacement)

Source: Tyner (2013)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Generalization depends on…
1. Topic and purpose
– Coastlines on population density map vs
coastlines for navigation on sea
2. Scale of the map
– smaller map scale (large area)
 more generalization required
3. Map reader’s abilities
– e.g. low-light conditions, paper map vs online map, etc.
4. Map makers equipment and skills
– Inkscape vs Adobe Photoshop, QGIS vs ArcMap, etc.
5. Quality of the data
– Can the data be appropriately generalized?

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Terminology
map scale
representative fraction
word scale / verbal scale
graphic scale / bar scale / linear scale
compilation
base data
internal base data
external base data
thematic / primary data
generalization: selection, simplification, smoothing, grouping, classification,
exaggeration, displacement

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 GMC 110, Cartography
Scale and projections – Lecture 2
Prepared by Serena Coetzee
Presented by Magda Roos
Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology,
University of Pretoria

Quarter 4, 2024

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Learning outcomes for Q4
• understand, interpret, and apply the geodetic
Today

principles on which maps are based;

• design and create maps for a specific purpose, making

appropriate use of space, colours, fonts and symbols;
• critique the design of a map;

• design and create a thematic map for a specific

purpose;
• critique the design of a thematic map;

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 GMC 110 – Scale and projections
Learning Objectives
• After completion of this topic, you should be
able to
– To understand what a scale is and how it
influences your map design
Today– To understand what a map projection is and how

it influences your map design

Today– Choose an appropriate scale and projection for a

specific map

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 geoid vs reference ellipsoid

red: geoid (earth-shaped figure)

black: ellipsoid (mathematically defined surface) Image source: Wikipedia contributors
geoid vs reference ellipsoid

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Spatial reference system
System for identifying position in the real world,
e.g. coordinate reference system

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 great circle
line that divides the earth
into two equal hemisphere

equator
great circle midway between poles

Image source: timeanddate.com © UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 latitude
angular distance north or south of the equator

Image source: https://www.windows2universe.org/geography/latitude_longitude_cutout.html

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

small circle / parallel
line that connects all points at the same latitude

great circle
line that divides the earth
into two equal hemisphere

equator
great circle midway between poles

Image source: timeanddate.com © UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 prime meridian
meridian at which longitude is defined to be 0o

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Image source: timeanddate.com
 longitude
angular distance east or west from the
prime meridian

Image source: https://www.windows2universe.org/geography/latitude_longitude_cutout.html

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

meridian
line that connects all points at the same longitude

prime meridian
meridian at which longitude is defined to be 0o

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Image source: timeanddate.com
graticule
grid formed by parallels and meridians

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Distance on surface of a sphere

• Shortest distance on plane

– Straight line distance
• Shortest distance on surface of sphere
– Arc of a great circle

Image source: math.stackexchange.com

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 Direction on a sphere
azimuth
• Direction on a sphere
– Position of one point on
the earth relative to
another
– Measured as azimuth
• angle between reference
line (meridian) and a great
circle running between
the observer and the
point observed

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 loxodromic curve / rhumb line
loxodromic curve / rhumb line
a line of constant compass direction
a line crossing all meridians at the same angle

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map projections
• Map projection
– a systematic and orderly representation of the
earth’s surface on a plane
– when a sphere / globe is transformed onto a
plane, distortion is unavoidable
• Limitations of globes
– can see only one side of the globe, world map is
not possible
– physical globe has scale limitations… can see only
so much…
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
 Map projections
• How they work…
– Have a look at these videos
• https://elearn.unigis.ac.at/pluginfile.php/7758/mod_re
source/content/1/Proj.html
• https://k12.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Science_and_Te
chnology/Earth_Science/02%3A_Introduction_to_Earth
_Science/2.09%3A_Map_Projections

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Map projections
Many projections, see https://projections.mgis.psu.edu/ and
https://www.jasondavies.com/maps/transition/
But only a few are in common use,
others remain cartographic curiosities…
 Projection properties
A projection either preserves or distorts one or
more of the following
1. Area
2. Angle or shape of small areas
3. Linear scale or distance
4. Direction

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Projection properties
A projection either preserves or distorts one or
more of the following
1. Area – equivalent / equal area
2. Angle or shape of small areas – conformal or
orthomorphic
3. Linear scale or distance – equidistant
4. Direction – azimuthals or zenithals
5. Minimum error – compromise

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Area
equivalent / equal area
Preserve area but distort shape

Mollweide projection
(equal area)

Image source: Wikipedia

 Angle or shape of small areas
conformal or orthomorphic

Preserves angles with infinitely small sides

but area is distorted Shape of small features
(bays, peninsula) is
preserved, not that of
larger features (countries,
continents)

Mercator projection
(conformal)

Image source: Wikipedia

 Mollweide projection
(equal area)

Image source: Wikipedia

Impossible to
preserve both area
and shape in a single
map projection

Mercator projection
(conformal)

Image source: Wikipedia

 Linear scale or distance
equidistant
Distances are preserved along certain lines or
from specific points (not over entire map)

Conic equidistant
(distances along meridians
are preserved)

Image source: Wikipedia

 Direction
azimuthals or zenithals
Azimuth is correct only from a single point, the
centre (not over the entire map)

Orthographic projection
(shapes and areas are
distorted near edges)

Image source: Wikipedia

 Minimum error
compromise
• Not conformal but shapes not distorted too much
• Not equal area but areas may not too poorly presented
• Useful for thematic work

Robinson projection
(compromise)

Image source: Wikipedia

 Projection surfaces
• Developable surfaces
– can be cut and flattened without distortion or tearing

Three kinds of developable surfaces

1. Cylinder
2. Cone
3. Plane
(4. Mathematically devised or conventional projections)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Projection surfaces

• All projections have

deformation / distortion
(more significant for large
areas)
• Deformation/distortion
follows a pattern

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Projection aspects

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Cylindrical projections
Zone of least distortion

Mercator projection
(cylindrical, conformal, equatorial)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection Image source: Wikipedia

Cylindrical projections
Mercator projection
(conformal, cylindrical)

Therefore good
for navigation

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Zone of least distortion
Cylindrical projections

Transverse Mercator projection

(cylindrical, conformal, transverse)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection Image source: Wikipedia

 Cylindrical projections
Lambert projection
Zone of least distortion
(cylindrical, equal area, equatorial)

central meridian at 0°

central meridian at 160°W to

focus the map on the oceans

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection Image source: Wikipedia

 Conic projections
Zone of least distortion

Albers equal-area conic projection

(conic, equal area, normal)

standard parallels at 20°N and 50°N

(distortion is minimal between the standard parallels)

area
standard parallels at 29.5°N and 45.5°N
(distortion is minimal between the standard parallels)
Image source: Wikipedia
 Conic projections
Zone of least distortion

Lambert conic conformal projection

(conic, conformal, normal)

standard parallels at 20°N and 50°N

(distortion is minimal between the standard parallels)

standard parallels at 33°N and 45°N

(not equal-area, but areal distortion between parallels is minimal)
Image source: Wikipedia
Plane (azimuthal) projections

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Plane (azimuthal) projections
Orthographic projection
(azimuthal, oblique)

Centre: least deformation

Can only present one hemisphere at a time

(nice visual presentation)

Image source: Wikipedia

 Plane (azimuthal) projections
Stereographic projection
(azimuthal, conformal, oblique)

Centre: least deformation

Shows a bit more than one hemisphere

but less than entire sphere

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Image source: Wikipedia
 Plane (azimuthal) projections

Zone of least distortion

Gnomonic projection
(azimuthal, polar)

Centre: least deformation

Impossible to show entire hemisphere

Distortion of areas and shapes is extreme
But: great circles are straight lines (good for
plotting navigation routes)
 Plane (azimuthal) projections

Zone of least distortion

Gnomonic projection
(azimuthal, polar)

Centre: least deformation

Impossible to show entire hemisphere

Distortion of areas and shapes is extreme
But: great circles are straight lines (good for
plotting navigation routes)
 Plane (azimuthal) projections
Lambert’s azimuthal equal area projection
(azimuthal, equal area, oblique)

Centre: least deformation

Almost the entire earth can be shown

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Plane (azimuthal) projections

Zone of least distortion

Azimuthal equidistant projection
(azimuthal, equidistant, polar)

Centre: least deformation

Distances can only be measured from the centre point

Displays the whole sphere

 Plane (azimuthal) projections

Zone of least distortion

Azimuthal equidistant projection
(azimuthal, equidistant, polar)

Centre: least deformation

Distances can only be measured from the centre point

Displays the whole sphere

 Mathematical projections
Sinusoidal projection
(mathematical, equal area)
Shapes in the high latitudes badly distorted

Less distortion in the centre

Measure distances along any parallel

Shapes in the high latitudes badly distorted
 Mathematical projections
Mollweide (homolographic) projection
(mathematical, equal area)
Shapes in the high latitudes not as badly
distorted as on sinusoidal projection

Only 40o N and 40o S parallels are correct in length

 Interrupted projection
Goode’s homolosine projection
(mathematical, equal area)

Mollweide > 40o N

Sinusoidal between 40o N and 40o S

Mollweide > 40o S

 Mathematical projections
Robinson projection
(mathematical, compromise)

Pleasing appearance
Neither equal area nor conformal
Summary of projections and their
characteristics

Tyner (2013), pp225-229

Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
• Size and shape of the area
• Location of the subject area
• Audience
• Appearance of the graticule
• Size and shape of the page
• Orientation indication

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
– e.g. navigation: conformal, distribution: equal area
• Size and shape of the area
• Location of the subject area
• Audience
• Appearance of the graticule
• Size and shape of the page
• Orientation indication

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
• Size and shape of the area
– Area of interest in zone of least deformation
• Location of the subject area
• Audience
• Appearance of the graticule
• Size and shape of the page
• Orientation indication

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
• Size and shape of the area
• Location of the subject area
– conic projections show mid-latitudes best
– oblique conic good for narrow north-south areas
• Audience
• Appearance of the graticule
• Size and shape of the page
• Orientation indication
© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection
Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
• Size and shape of the area
• Location of the subject area
• Audience
– How sophisticated are they?
• Appearance of the graticule
• Size and shape of the page
• Orientation indication

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
• Size and shape of the area
• Location of the subject area
• Audience
• Appearance of the graticule
– Not too complex!
• Size and shape of the page
• Orientation indication

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
• Size and shape of the area
• Location of the subject area
• Audience
• Appearance of the graticule
• Size and shape of the page
– Choose selection to fit into (odd) dimensions
• Orientation indication

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

Choosing an appropriate projection
• Subject and purpose of the map
• Size and shape of the area
• Location of the subject area
• Audience
• Appearance of the graticule
• Size and shape of the page
• Orientation indication
– NB for small scale maps (e.g. world map)
– Not so important for small are (e.g. city or country)
– North arrow only for projections where meridians are
straight (only for cylindrical projections)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection

 Terminology
geoid projection
reference system equal-area / equivalent projection
great circle conformal / orthomorphic projection
equator equidistant projection
latitude azimuthal / zenithal projection
longitude conic projection – normal, equatorial, oblique
small circle cylindrical projection – equatorial, transverse, oblique
parallel plane projection - polar, equatorial and oblique
meridian mathematical projection
prime meridian Commonly used projections (pp225-229)
graticule
loxodrome / rhumb line
distance on a sphere (arc of a great circle)
direction on a sphere (azimuth)

© UP GMC 110: Scale and Projection