REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

AI Impact on the Learning and Teaching Process

Dealing with the impact of AI on learning and teaching in higher

education, it is evident that AI will impact higher education in many ways and

mainly in two focal areas: enrollment and curriculum (Taneri, 2020). Maintain

that AI will speed consistency and accuracy in curriculum and registration.

Human sciences and liberal arts majors will become more popular because

these areas of study are less vulnerable to the field of AI than other areas,

such as accounting and finance. Although this study is essential for a load of

information on the influence of AI on higher education, it can be criticized for

not tackling the issue genuinely, as the impact is much more profound.

Indeed, focusing on the learning and teaching process, no one would doubt

that AI is replacing the lecturer or tutor in many ways, such as blended

learning and e-learning. The presence of an e-learning lecturer is limited as

the learner interacts with a virtual classroom, whether on Blackboard, Moodle,

Turn tin or any other platform. Equally, Professor Roland T Chin from Hong

Kong Baptist University (2018) believes that AI is meant to revolutionize how

we learn, teach, work, live, make decisions, and be ready for the AI era.
Therefore, AI is not only about its superficial effect, but about radical changes

in the teaching and learning process in depth.

What reinforces this idea conditionally is the argument from Princeton’s

Head of Computer Science, Jennifer Rexford. She surmises that AI is efficient

in learning and teaching if others learn: “Learning how people learn will

hopefully help us and others think more broadly about retraining down the

road” (Rexford, 2018). Hence, according to Jennifer, the efficiency of AI is

provisional, as understanding learning styles is the only key to success.

Learning process in this world is becoming more interactive and engaging,

according to recent researchers, because eLearning provides the learner with

artistic and pedagogical features as well as incorporates and deals with

countless types of content which react effectively to the students’ needs.

The absence of striking examples of how AI impacts the learner’s daily

life can be a limitation of the approach, highlighted below in the Education and

Unit Study. For example, AI provides deep learning and teaching processes to

get higher performance from both the tutor and the tutee. For example,

adopting hypermedia for a writing class facilitates mistakes and reduces time

consumption. For example, before discovering AI, it took ages for a teacher to

assess and grade papers and check for plagiarism. Thanks to AI, checking for

academic integrity and language issues takes minutes or less. Indeed, using

artificial intelligence, a lecturer submits the work or other software. In minimal

time, it can provide constructive feedback based on the results generated by

the software used (Yousif, 2011).

Although AI is perfect in covering language and academic integrity

issues, semantic, pragmatic, and cognitive levels, in many cases, require the

intervention of the human mind to perform the last touch (Mellul, 2018).

Nevertheless, AI offers various learners links about the topics required by the

subject matter and eases and inspires both learner and tutor by addressing

different learning styles such as autonomous learning, visual learning, e-

learning, audio-visual learning, and deep learning. Equally, AI enables the

tutor to select and apply the learning method taxonomy that the learner needs

and highlights the areas of improvement to be focused on. Meanwhile, AI

reinforces independent learning as the learner becomes autonomous and free

to access input anytime and anywhere. AI positively influences education by

providing intelligent computer-assisted instruction that facilitates learning

intuition and provides expert systems to diagnose and assess learning

outcomes. It is undoubtedly clear that AI adds a lot to the learning and

teaching process, so what about assessments and grading.

Impact of AI on the Assessment and Classification Process

AI does not impact only the learning and teaching process but also the

assessing and grading process. For instance, AI checks assignments and

research projects through software such as Turn tin against billions of

resources in no time. Consequently, similarities are easily generated to judge

whether the learner plagiarized. Similarly, online rubrics and grading forms are

added to assignments with criteria and scales, and final grades are

automatically added to the submitted work without any hassle (Mahana et al.,

2012). Furthermore, AI offers interactive ways of providing constructive

feedback to the learner, easy access in a relaxed manner anytime and

anywhere, with more privacy and autonomy. Additionally, the instructor can

write or record feedback to facilitate and improve learning from errors.

AI is applied to evaluate students’ responses and create a computer

model that endorses rules inferred from the tutor's grading decisions. What is

specific about AI is that it improves learning instead of making a final

authoritative decision. In addition, it reflects more transparency, trust, and

quality control (Stanford University, 2019). In the same context article “More

states opting to Robo-Grade’ Student Essays by computer,” argues that rob-

graders or robots used for grading students’ papers) are increasingly used to

grade students’ essays mainly in Utah, Ohio and soon Massachusetts to

follow. Similarly, a research professor at Colorado University named Peter

Foltz says they have AI techniques that can judge up to 100 features and that

grading essay is highly accurate. In short, artificial intelligence is playing a

more prominent role in the evaluation and classification of higher education in

the United States of America.

 Though the above studies are valuable from different perspectives in

addressing the role of AI in grading and assessing the learner and facilitating

the role of the instructor, a critical thinker would not fail to pose the following

questions: What about bias in marking reports? Who would guarantee that AI

is fair and objective? What about the human side of the learning process and

assessment? Will AI consider the psychology of learner grading or assessing

a paper (Trovia Betty 2018).

AI Impact on Future Careers of Graduates

AI affects the world of education, but it also seems restricted to this

area and follows the learner even after graduation. For instance, according to

Wang and Siau (2017), AI will impact the future job market of required

skillsets. It will replace many other studies that involve routine tasks and

structures that are easy to automate instead of unstructured disciplines that

require complex cognitive interference. AI or computer assessment is not

limited to grading papers but can be the gateway to a future career. For

instance, a human may not read CVs but be screened by an algorithm

specialized in candidate shortlisting. As an example, in an article by the

Economist entitled “How algorithms may decide your career: getting a job

means getting past the computer”, it is reported that the largest firms are now

using computer programs or algorithms to select candidates with an applicant

tracking system (ATS) which can reject up to 75% of candidates. The above

policy pushed applicants to use keywords to maximize screening interests.

Vodafone and Intel are not satisfied with shortlisting CVs but instead

use a computer-driven visual interviews service called “HireVue” to further

select candidates. In this process, AI analyses facial expressions and

language patterns and decides to pass or fail the applicant. According to a

study by Frey & Osborne (2013), the number of jobs at risk that will be

computerized and include advances in robotics and machine learning is

roughly 47% of US total employment. Refers to research conducted by Daron

Acemoglu and Pascual Resrego from MIT University that each added robot

replaces 5.6 workers, almost equal to six people.

Ma & Siau (2018) of Oxford University argues that within the next 20

years, around 47% of jobs in the United States of America and almost 54% in

Europe are at risk due. Additionally, the latter researchers at Oxford University

forecast that AI will write high-school essays by 2026, write best-selling books

by 2049, translate languages by 2024 and perform surgeries by 2053. From

Hong Kong University argues that there are overlooked AI examples or less

obvious ones such as translation machines that enable you to speak to

anyone with any language instantaneously. Added that JPMorgan Chase and

Co use a learning machine that deals with loan agreement processes and

saves 360 000 hours of work by accountants and lawyers.

 AI is creeping into the career world, Ma and Siau (2018) criticize these

aspects arguing that when it comes to soft skills such as empathy,

communication, collaboration, innovation, critical thinking, problem solving,

and leadership, AI is not as robust as human cognitive ability. Both

researchers reinforce their views by suggesting that higher institutions should

provide soft and hard skills such as math’s, IT, and engineering while training

students. They think AI may not be capable of affording these skills for future

business careers. Although computer-driven screening is believed to avoid

biases in the traditional recruitment process, AI is not bias-free. That algorithm

can favor candidates with time and money to continually re-tool their resumes.

Chin (2018) argues that citizens of the new world order require new

skills. These skills should include interpersonal skills such as adaptability,

critical thinking, conflict resolution capabilities, and other cognitive skills. Steve

Jobs thinks, 'It is technology married with the liberal arts, married with the

humanities that yields us the results that make our heart sing'. How would

higher education impact AI? Undoubtedly, the world is getting more

innovative, and AI has rehabilitated our world by putting natural languages and

data by enabling Siri, Netflix, Facebook, Google, Alexa, Amazon, and many

other platforms as part of our daily life. However, the question arises: How will

higher education affect AI? This research paper will address these issues from

the two focal points of ethics and cognition as answers to these issues.
Cognitive and Ethical Impacts of Higher Education on AI

Dealing with ethics in AI is a lecturer in learning science and innovation

at the Institute of Educational Technology in the UK. Holmes (2018),

discussing the impact of AI on education, raised the importance of adopting

ethics in AI education. The same lecturer argues that whether we like it or not,

AI is being deployed in higher institutions worldwide and significantly impacts

the future of higher education. Similarly, he adds that by 2024 the global AIED

market will be worth 4.5 billion pounds. Companies such as Google,

Facebook, and Amazon invest millions of dollars in developing AI in education.

Holmes (2018) believes that 'adaptive' or 'personalised' ethical learning

systems are not entirely taken into account. He also stressed that there is a

'moral vacuum' without guidelines, policies, regulations, or research done to

stress the specific ethical issues raised by AI in education. The question is not

a question of data for him, but instead is an issue of morality and that is why

he asks: “How can we be sure that the data are accurate, who owns and

controls the data, and how is student privacy maintained?” AIED ethics should

not be reduced to questioning data and controlling the potential of bias that is

incorporated in AIED computational approaches, algorithms, and the decisions

taken by the AI’s deep neural networks that are not quickly inspected and that

he describes as “known unknowns”.” Whether anyone likes it or not, AI has

quietly entered the university campus, but little attention has been paid to
ethics. To give just one example, what happens if a student is subjected to a

limited set of algorithms that impact negatively and incorrectly on their

assessments?” What is inferred from this study is that higher education should

give more importance to the ethical part while teaching AI.

To address the ethical issue of AI, and as an example, Open University

in the UK conducted workshops involving researchers around the world on

AIED in 2018 at the AI in Education International Conference. Participants

considered the importance of doing empirical work to address systematic

biases in learning machine models and create impenetrable algorithm black

boxes and AI ethics-driven courses. Therefore, Open University started using

“Chatbots”, an internet-based program designed to simulate conversation with

users. Communicates through text messages through websites, applications,

or instant messengers to support students and staff (Drabwell, 2018).

Likewise, higher education institutions should think of security and

privacy issues. When it comes to AI, these burning issues, despite the rosy

promises of AI humans, have to address this ethical issue, with intelligent

systems monitoring our faces 24 hours a day with only a few elements of our

private life remaining untouched. Are there legal frameworks, policies, or

ethical codes to control the brutality of AI? Moreover, we should consider robot

cops and their ability to kill and hold them without human ethics. AI raises

many social issues that are more complex than technological ones, such as

ethics, privacy, and inequality, which entails that we need STEM and
technology graduates and graduates who are deeply grounded in humanities

and arts. With liberal arts education, intellectual and ethical growth will be an

opportunity that integrates compassion, civicminded citizens, responsibility,

and ethics.

Cognitive Impact of Higher Education on AI

Thinking cognitively, AI has made it a present-day reality that imitates

humans in many functions such as language translation, medical diagnostics,

and decision making. If humans interact, analyses, deduce, think logically, and

reason contextually, AI performs these actions artificially based on powerful

computers, high-speed internet connections, algorithms and extensive real-

time data (Chin, 2018).

AI performs fixed and domain-specific tasks with unmatched learning

speed, extensive data, excellent efficiency and unlimited computing capacity.

On the contrary, humans learn flexibly, pose, and solve issues creatively, think

critically, and innovate adaptively. Despite the above facts about humans, AI,

deep learning, and ample data supply, AI has surpassed average human

performance in manufacturing automation and face recognition. For example,

it is expected to perform enormous tasks. Professor Ronald T Chin relates a

story of two robots trained to communicate at a sophisticated level. They were

found later speaking to each other in a language they had developed, which

spooked the scientist and caused him to shut down the project. Therefore, AI

may not be as cooperative as expected. Here lies the question, what have

higher education institutions done to monitor and control the cognitive

wilderness of AI? The issue is not creating a sophisticated language that

humans would not grasp, but more than that. Even more astonishing is that

their idea of embedding AI in human intelligence is forthcoming. Scientists

think of hardwiring human brains to implant a neuro-electronic chip into human

heads, enabling communication via voice or texts through the cloud to brain

signals that connect the internet (Gallery, 2018).

Recently in 2017 and in many TV talk shows around the world, a

humanoid robot named Sophia developed in Hong Kong dazzled audiences

by officially joining a recent United Nations Summit as a panelist to address

issues of inequality and said: “The future is already here. It is not very evenly

distributed. If we are smarter and focused on win-win results, AI could help to

efficiently distribute the existing resources of the world, such as food and

energy” (Guardian News, 2017). Again, where is the role of the higher

institution in creating a boundary for empowering the AI with highly

sophisticated cognitive skills that transgress the human mind and frees itself

from the human aspect as the robot killer and robot cop and perhaps much

more? Against this tremendous growth in the AI world, one should not forget

that progress has been made by improving people and not improving
machines, as the science fiction. In short, this statement empowers humans

over AI because any cognitive intelligence AI owns, first of all, is inherited or

programmed by a human mind that can ultimately control this potential.