UPC – School of Civil Engineering

Master in Structural and Construction Engineering

FOUNDATION STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATION
STRUCTURES

Luca Pelà
luca.pela@upc.edu
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CONTENTS

DEFINITIONS

PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS

SELECTION OF FOUNDATION TYPE

SAFETY FACTORS
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DEFINITIONS

A foundation is defined as that part of the structure that

supports the weight of the structure and transmits the load to
underlying soil or rock.

Foundation engineering applies the knowledge from

different disciplines:
- Geology,
- Soil Mechanics,
- Rock Mechanics,
- Structural Engineering
- Construction Engineering
to the design and construction of foundations for buildings
and other structures.

Foundation engineering often involves both geotechnical

and structural engineers, with the geotechnical engineer
providing the foundation design parameters, such as the
design soil bearing pressure, and the structural engineer
performing the actual foundation design.
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In terms of geotechnical aspects, foundation

engineering includes the following activities:
• Determining the type of foundation for the structure, including the
depth and dimensions
• Calculating the potential settlement of the foundation
• Determining design parameters for the foundation, such as the
bearing capacity and design soil bearing pressure
• Investigating the stability of slopes and their effect on adjacent
foundations
• Investigating the possibility of foundation movement due to seismic
forces, which would also include the possibility of liquefaction
• Performing studies and tests to determine the potential for
deterioration of the foundation
• Evaluating possible soil treatment to increase the foundation bearing
capacity
• Determining design parameters for retaining wall foundations
• Providing recommendations for dewatering and drainage of
excavations needed for the construction of the foundation
• Investigating groundwater and seepage problems and developing
mitigation measures during foundation construction
• Site preparation, including compaction specifications and density
testing during grading
• Underpinning and field testing of foundations
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PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

General requirements for foundation engineering projects:

1. Knowledge of the general topography of the site as it affects foundation design and
construction (e.g., surface configuration, adjacent property, the presence of watercourses,
ponds, hedges, trees, rock outcrops, and the available access for construction vehicles and
materials).

2. The location of buried utilities such as electric power and telephone cables, water mains,
and sewers.

3. The general geology of the area with particular reference to the main geologic formations
underlying the site, and the possibility of subsidence from mineral extraction or other causes.

4. The previous history and use of the site including information on any defects or failures
of existing or former buildings attributable to foundation conditions.

5. Any special hazard such as the possibility of earthquakes or climate factors such as
flooding, seasonal swelling and shrinkage, permafrost, or soil erosion.
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6. The availability and quality of local construction materials such as concrete aggregates,
building and road stone, and water for construction purposes.

7. For maritime or river structures, information on tidal ranges and river levels, velocity of
tidal and river currents, and other hydrographic and meteorological data.

8. A detailed record of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditions within the
zones affected by foundation bearing pressures and construction operations, or of any
deeper strata affecting the site conditions in any way.

9. Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the particular
foundation design or construction problems.

10. Results of chemical analyses on soil or groundwater to determine possible deleterious

effects of foundation structures.

All these general requirements are also combined with local building department, governing
authority or other regulatory requirements.
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CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundations

Spread footings (also called pad footings) are often

square/rectangular in plan view and of uniform reinforced
concrete thickness. They are used to support a single
column load located directly in the center of the footing.

Reinforced-concrete combined footings are often

rectangular or trapezoidal in plan view, and carry more than
one column load. Other case: cantilever or strap footing.

Strip footings (also called wall footings) are often used

for load-bearing walls. They are usually long reinforced
concrete members of uniform width and shallow depth.
A special case of strip foundation is the inverted T-beam.

Mat foundations are large and thick, often of uniform

thickness, continuous and support the entire structure. It is
considered to be a shallow foundation if it is constructed at
or near ground surface.
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Some examples of mat foundations in the

figure:
a) flat plate
b) plate thickened under columns
c) beam-and-slab
d) plate with pedestals
e) basement walls as part of mat.

Based on economic considerations, mat foundations are constructed for the following reasons:
1. Large individual footings: when the sum of individual footing areas exceeds about one-half
of the total foundation area.
2. Cavities or compressible lenses: they can span over them and create a more uniform
settlement condition.
3. Shallow settlements: they can minimize differential settlements when they predominate.
4. Unequal distribution of loads: they tend to distribute the unequal building loads and reduce
the differential settlements, compared with conventional spread footings.
5. Hydrostatic uplift. When the foundation will be subjected to hydrostatic uplift due to a high
groundwater table, a mat foundation could be used to resist the uplift forces.
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Spread footings Combined footing Strap footing

Strip (wall) footings Mat

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Examples of mat foundations

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Shallow foundation alternatives

If the expected settlement is too large, foundation support or

soil stabilization must be evaluated:

1. Grading: remove the compressible soil layer and replace it

with structural fill. It is economical if the compressible soil layer
is near the ground surface, and the groundwater table is below
the compressible soil layer (or can be economically lowered).

2. Surcharge: with a fill layer placed at the ground surface, over

an underlying compressible cohesive soil layer. Vertical drains
can speedup the consolidation process. After reaching sufficient
consolidation, the fill surcharge layer is removed and the
building is constructed.

3. Densification of loose-soft soil, e.g. by vibro-flotation and

dynamic compaction for sand deposits. Another option is
compaction grouting, which consists of intruding a mass of very
thick consistency grout into the soil.

4. Floating foundation. A special type of deep foundation where

the weight of the structure is balanced by the removal of soil
and construction of an underground basement.
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Deep foundations

Piles are used to support reinforced concrete

pile caps or a mat foundation.

Driven piles are slender members, made of

wood, steel, or precast concrete, that are
driven into place by pile-driving equipment.
They can be either low or high displacement
depending on the amount of soil that must be
pushed out of the way.

Bored piles, cast-in-place piles are RC

elements cast into drilled holes (see figure).

Composite piles are composed

of two different materials
acting together.

Pre-cast RC piles
are also used (see figure).
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Cast-in-place pile Precast RC pile driven into place

Pile cap supported by 3 piles. Mat foundation supported by piles

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Types of piles in terms of their support capacity:

• End-bearing pile: the support capacity is derived principally

from the resistance of the foundation material on which the
pile tip rests (dense or hard strata underlying a soft upper
layer). If the upper soft layer settles, the pile could be
subjected to downdrag forces and must resist them.

• Friction pile: the support capacity is derived principally from

the resistance of the soil friction and/or adhesion mobilized
along the side of the pile. They are often used in soft clays
where the end-bearing resistance is small due to punching
shear at the pile tip. A pile that resists upward loads (tension
forces) would also be considered to be a friction pile.

• Combined end-bearing
and friction pile.

• Batter pile: driven in at an

angle inclined to the vertical
to provide high resistance
to lateral loads.
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SELECTION OF FOUNDATION TYPE

It depends on different factors:

• Adequate depth (e.g. to prevent frost damage, or
undermining by scour in bridge piers).
• The foundation must be safe against a bearing capacity
failure.
• The settlement of the foundation must not reach such an
extent that it damages the structure.
• The foundation must be of adequate quality so that it is
not subjected to deterioration (e.g. sulfate attack, etc.)
• The foundation must be designed with adequate
strength that it does not fracture or break apart under the
applied superstructure loads, and properly constructed in
conformance with the design specifications.
• The foundation must be able to resist long-term adverse
soil changes (an example is expansive soil, which could
expand or shrink causing movement of the foundation
and damage to the structure).
• Seismic forces. The foundation must be able to support
the structure during an earthquake without excessive
settlement or lateral movement.
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SAFETY FACTORS

Safety factors in foundations are typically greater than those in superstructure (with
consequent economic consequences) due to:

• Extra weight in the superstructure (e.g. as a consequence of conservatorism) increases

the loads on the members below, thus the costs. This is not the case of foundations, as
they are the lowest member in the structure.

• Construction tolerances in foundations are wider than those in the superstructure, so

the as-built dimensions are often significantly different than the design dimensions.

• The structural materials might be damaged when they are installed (e.g. in piles).

• Uncertainties in soil properties introduce significantly more risk.

• Uncertainties in nature and distribution of load transfer between foundation and ground.

• Foundation failures are usually more costly than failures in the superstructure.

• The consequences of a catastrophic failure are much greater.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bowles J. (1998) Foundations Analysis and Design. McGraw Hill

Day R. W. (2006) Foundation Engineering Handbook: Design and

Construction with the 2006 International Building Code. McGraw-Hill
Professional.