CV 234AI CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 1
1.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• Describe the manufacturing process of cement,
• Explain the chemical composition of cement,
• Describe the physical properties of cement,
• Classify the various types of cement explaining their uses,
• Verify the quality of cement by the field test, and
• Get acquainted with the laboratory testing of portland cement,

• Describe various tests conducted on aggregates and water.

1.1 Definition of cement

Cement is a greenish grey colored powder, made of calcined mixtures of clay
and limestone. When mixed with water becomes a hard and strong building
material. The modern day cement, that is Portland cement was first produced
by a British stone mason, Joseph Aspdin in 1824. The name Portland was
given by the inventor as it resembles a stone quarried on the Isle of Portland.
The first use of modern day Portland cement was in the tunnel construction in
the Thames River in 1828.
Cement is defined as the product manufactured by burning and crushing to
powder an intimate and well-proportioned mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous materials. The cement, which is generally used for preparing
concrete, is the Ordinary Portland Cement. But for special purposes other
qualities of cement such as Low Heat Cement, Rapid Hardening Cement,
High Alumina Cement, White Cement, Blast Furnace Slag Cement, Sulphate
Resisting Cement, etc. are also used.
The selection of a particular type of cement to be used for manufacturing of
concrete, depends upon the following factors :
(a) The required strength of the concrete structure.
(b) The type of structure.
(c) The conditions under which the construction of structure is to take
place.

1.2 Manufacturing process of cement

The following raw materials are basically required for manufacturing of
cement:
Calcareous Materials
The materials which contain calcium or lime as their major constituent are
known as calcareous materials. The various calcareous materials used in the
manufacture of cement are lime stone, marl, chalk, shells, etc. These
materials provide the required proportion of lime to the cement.
Argillaceous Materials
The argillaceous materials contain alumina as their major constituent. The
various argillaceous materials used in the manufacture of cement are shale,
clay, laterite, etc. These materials provide the required proportion of silica,
alumina, oxide of iron, etc. to the cement.
The process of manufacture of cement consists of grinding the raw materials
(calcareous and argillaceous materials) mixing them intimately in certain
proportions and burning them in a kiln at a temperature of about 1500°C at
which the material sinters and fuses to form nodular shaped clinker. The
clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder with addition of about 2 to 3 %
of gypsum. The product obtained by this procedure is called as Portland
Cement. There are two processes known as Wet and Dry processes
depending upon whether the mixing and grinding of raw materials is done in
wet or dry condition. The wet process requires more fuel as slurry contains
about 35-50 % water. The dry process requires less fuel as materials are
already in dry state.
1.2.1 Wet Process
In this process, the limestone is crushed to smaller fragments and then it is
taken to a ball or tube mill where clay or shale is mixed with it and ground to
a fine consistency of slurry with the addition of water. The slurry is pumped
to slurry tanks where it is kept in an agitated condition by means of rotating
arms with chains to prevent setting of limestone and clay particles. At this
stage, the chemical composition of slurry is adjusted as necessary. The
corrected slurry is stored in storage tanks and kept in homogeneous condition
by the agitation of slurry.
The corrected slurry is injected at the upper end of a rotary kiln. Rotary kiln
is formed of steel tubes. The diameter of rotary kiln varies from 3 m to 8 m
and length varies from 30 m to 200 m. The kiln is supported at intervals by
columns of masonry or concrete. It is laid at a gradient of about 1 in 25 to 1
in 30. The refractory lining is provided on the inside surface of rotary kiln. It
is so arranged that the kiln rotates at about one to three revolutions per
minute about its longitudinal axis. The burning is carried out in this rotary
kiln.
The hot gases or flames are forced through the lower end of the kiln. The
portion of the kiln near its upper end is known as dry zone and in this zone,
the water of slurry is evaporated. As the slurry gradually descends, there is
rise in temperature and in the next section of kiln, the carbon dioxide from
slurry is evaporated. The small lumps, called as nodules, are formed at this
stage. These nodules then gradually roll down passing through zones of
rising temperature and ultimately reach to the burning zone, where
temperature is about 1500°C. In burning zone, the calcined product is formed
and nodules are converted into small hard dark greenish blue balls, which are
known as clinkers. The size of clinkers varies from 28
3 mm to 20 mm and they are very hot when they come out of burning zone of
kiln. The temperature of clinker at the outlet of kiln is nearly 1000°C. The
clinker drops into a rotary cooler where it is cooled under controlled
conditions.
The clinkers as obtained from the rotary kiln are finely grounded in ball mills
and tube mills. During grinding a small quantity, about 2 to 3% of gypsum is
added. If gypsum is not added, the cement would set as soon as water is
added. The gypsum controls the initial setting time of cement. The gypsum
acts as a retarder Grinding of Clinkers in Ball Mills & Tube Mills Storage in
Silos Weighing & Packing in BagsDistribution Channel Grinding Mill
Formation of Slurry Correcting Basin Storage Tanks Rotary Kiln Formation
of Clinkers Coolers and delays the setting action of cement. Thus, gypsum
permits cement to be mixed with the aggregates and to be placed in position.
A ball mill consists of several compartments charged with progressively
smaller hardened steel balls. The particles crushed to the required fineness
are separated by currents of air and taken to storage silos from where the
cement is bagged or filled into barrels for bulk supply to dams, bridges or
other large work sites.

1.2.2 Dry Process

In the dry process, the raw materials are crushed dry and fed in correct
proportions into a grinding mill. The raw materials are dried and crushed into
a very fine powder. The dry powder is called raw meal. The dry powder is
further blended and corrected for its right composition and mixed by using
compressed air. The aerated powder tends to behave almost like liquid and in
about one hour of aeration a uniform mixture is obtained. The sieved blended
meal fed into a rotating disc called as granulator. The pellets of blended meal
are formed by adding water approximately 12% to permit air flow for
exchange of heat for chemical reactions and conversion of the same into
clinker.
The dry process is economical. In this method, equipment used is
comparatively smaller. The consumption of coal in this method is very low as
compared to wet process. In case of mixing of raw materials by dry process,
the raw mix is formed and in case of mixing of raw materials by wet process,
the slurry is formed.
The remaining operations, e.g. burning and grinding are same as that of the
wet process.

1.3 Chemical ingredients of cement

The chief chemical ingredients and their proportions in ordinary cement are
given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Typical constituents of Portland

cement
CC
Cement Mass %
N
Calcium oxide, CaO C 61-67%
Silicon dioxide, SiO2 S 19-23%
Aluminum oxide, Al2O3 A 2.5-6%
Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 F 0-6%
Sulfate 1.5-4.5%

With the advancement in research, development and technology the types of

cement in India has incresed over the years. The Indian cement industry is
witnessing a boom as a result of which the production of different kinds of
cement in India has also increased.

The functions and effects of various chemical ingredients of cement are as

follows :
Lime
Lime is the major ingredient of cement. It makes the cement sound and
also provides strength to the cement. Lime in excess makes the cement
unsound and causes the cement to expand and disintegrate. The
 deficiency of lime will decrease the strength and cause the cement to
set quickly.
Silica
Silica provides strength to the cement. Silica in excess causes the
cement to set slowly.
Alumina
Alumina lowers the clinkering temperature. It provides quick setting
property to the cement. Alumina in excess weakens the strength of the
cement.
Iron Oxide
Iron oxide provides colour, hardness and strength to the cement. It
helps the fusion of material at lower temperature during the
manufacturing of cement.
Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium oxide provides colour and hardness to the cement. Excess
magnesium oxide remains in free state and makes the cement unsound.
Sulphur Trioxide
Sulphur trioxide makes the cement sound if present in very small
quantity. Excess sulphur trioxide makes the cement unsound.
Alkalies

Alkalies may be present in a very small quantiy. Alkalies in excess cause

efflorescence.

1.4 Chemical compounds of cement

Table 1.3 shows the major chemical or final compounds of cement. They are
also known as Bouges’ compounds.
Table 1.3 Typical constituents of Portland clinker plus Gypsum
Cement chemists notation under CCN.

Mass
Clinker CCN
%
Tricalcium silicate (CaO)3 · SiO2 C3S 45-75%
Dicalcium silicate (CaO)2 · SiO2 C2S 7-32%
Tricalcium aluminate (CaO)3 · Al2O3 C3A 0-13%
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (CaO)4 · Al2O3 · Fe2O3 C4AF 0-18%
Gypsum CaSO4 · 2 H2O G 2-10%

These final compounds of cement are formed during calcinations in the

following order : C4AF, C3A, C2S and C3S.
The properties of all these final compounds of cement are discussed below :
Tri-calcium Silicate (C3S)
It possesses the following properties :
(a) It hydrates rapidly.
(b) It generates more heat of hydration.
(c) It develops early strength.
(d) It has less resistance to sulphate attack.

Di-calcium Silicate (C2S)

It possesses the following properties :
(a) It hydrates slowly.
(b) It generates less heat of hydration.
 (c) It hardens more slowly.
(d) It contributes a little in early strength development.
(e) It gives good ultimate strength to the cement.
(f) It has more resistance to sulphate attack.

Tri-calcium Aluminate (C3A)

It possesses the following properties :
(a) It generates large amount of heat of hydration.
(b) It reacts fast with water.
(c) It causes initial setting of cement and thus helps in early
strength development in the concrete.
(d) It has less resistance to sulphate attack.
(e) It does not contribute to develop ultimate strength.

Tetra-calcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF)

It possesses the following properties:
(a) It is slow in reaction.
(b) It generates less heat of hydration.
(c) It is comparatively in-active and thus poor in early strength.
(d) It does not contribute to develop ultimate strength as it has
poor cementing value.
(e) It has less resistance to sulphate attack.
It has been analyzed that C3S and C2S control most of the strength developing
properties of cement. The sum of their percentage range varies from 70 to 80
%.
By changing the relative proportions of these compounds, different types of
cements can be manufactured.
1.5 Types of Cement in India

By a fair estimate, there are many different types of cement that are being
produced in India. The production of all these cement varieties is according
to the specifications of the BIS.

Some of the various types of cement produced in India are:

 Ordinary Portland Cement

 Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
 Portland Pozzolana Cement
 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
 Oil Well Cement
 White Cement
 Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement

In India, the different types of cement are manufactured using dry, semi-dry,
and wet processes. In the production of Clinker Cement, a lot of energy is
required. It is produced by using materials such as limestone, iron oxides,
aluminum, and silicon oxides. Among the different kinds of cement produced
in India, Portland Pozzolana Cement, Ordinary Portland Cement, and
Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement are the most important because they
account for around 99% of the total cement production in India.

The Portland variety of cement is the most common one among the types of
cement in India and is produced from gypsum and clinker. The Ordinary
Portland cement and Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement are used mostly in
the construction of airports and bridges. The production of white cement in
the country is very less for it is very expensive in comparison to grey cement.
In India, while cement is usually utilized for decorative purposes, marble
foundation work, and to fill up the gaps between tiles of ceramic and marble.
The different types of cement in India have registered an increase in
production in the last few years. Efforts must be made by the cement industry
in India and the government of India to ensure that the cement industry
continues innovation and research to come up with more and more varieties
in the near future.

The various types of cements that are available in the market can be
classified as follows.
1.5.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
This type of cement is also called normal setting cement since its setting is
normal when mixed with water. It is general-purpose cement suitable for
general concrete construction work, which requires no special consideration.
It has medium rate of strength development and heat generation. It has less
resistance to chemical attack.
Following are the uses of ordinary portland cement:
(a) It is used in important structures, where great strength is required
such as heavy buildings and bridges, etc.
(b) It is used in structures subject to the action of water such as
foundations, under water reservoirs, water tight floors, dock
yards, etc.
(c) It is used for making cement mortar, plain cement concrete,
reinforced cement concrete, etc.
(d) It is used for plastering and painting.
(e) It is used for drainage and water supply works.

1.5.2 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC)

This cement is similar to Ordinary Portland cement but with higher tri-
calcium silicate (C3S) content and finer grinding. It gains strength more
quickly than OPC, though the final strength is only slightly higher. This type
of cement is also called as High-Early Strength Portland Cement. The one-
day strength of this cement is equal to the three-day strength of OPC with the
same water-cement ratio.
Following are the advantages of the rapid hardening portland cement:
(a) It is used where formwork has to be removed as early as possible in
order to reuse it.
(b) It is used where high early strength is required.
(c) It is generally used for constructing road pavements, where it is
important to open the road to traffic quickly.
(d) It is used in industries which manufacture concrete products like
slabs, posts, electric poles, block fence, etc. because moulds can
be released quickly.
(e) It is used for cold weather concreting because rapid evolution of
heat during hydration protects the concrete against freezing.

1.5.3 Low Heat Portland Cement

Percentages of tri-calcium silicate (C3S) and tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) are
lower in this cement than OPC and RHPC while that of di-calcium silicate
(C2S) is higher. This results in a slower rate of reaction, lower evolution of
heat of hydration and lower early strength. But the ultimate strength remains
more or less unaffected.
Following are the uses of low heat portland cement :
(a) This cement is used only in large mass concrete works such as
dams, bridges, abutments, retaining walls, etc.
(b) It is also used in works where the rate of heat of generation must be
kept to minimum.

1.5.4 Sulphate Resisting Cement

This type of cement is also known as supersulphate cement. In this cement,
the percentage of tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) is kept below 5 percent and it
results in the increase in resisting power against sulphate attacks.
Following are the uses of sulphate resisting cement :
(a) It is used for canal lining in severe alkali conditions especially in the
arid western regions.
(b) It is used for marine works, mass concrete jobs to resist the attack of
aggressive water.
(c) It is used for works underside of bridges, over railway tracks and for
concrete sewers carrying industrial effluents.
(d) It is used in the construction of reinforced concrete pipes and also
for construction works to be done in sulphate bearing soils.

1.5.5 Blast Furnace Slag Cement

The blast furnace slag, which is a waste product obtained during manufacture
of iron, contains all the basic elements of cement, i.e. silica, alumina, lime,
iron, etc. It is crushed preliminary to a granulated form, which is then
intimately mixed with cement clinkers in the proportion of 65 % of slag to 35
% of clinkers and both are then grounded together to form cement. It is
cheaper than OPC. It develops low heat of hydration and has less early
strength.
Following are the uses of blast furnace slag cement:
(a) It is used for mass concrete works such as retaining walls, bridge
abutments, dams, etc.
(b) It is used for all purposes for which OPC is used.

1.5.6 White and Coloured Cement

White cement is manufactured from special raw materials like white chalk
and china clay having low contents of iron oxide (less than 1 %).
Coloured cements are manufactured by adding suitable mineral pigments
(oxide of lead, etc.) to Portland cement during grinding. The proportion of
the pigment varies 5% to 10%. The cobalt gives blue colour. The iron oxide
in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The manganese
dioxide gives black or brown coloured cement. These cements are costlier
than OPC because of specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials
and manufacturing process.
Following are the uses of white and coloured cement :
(a) They are used in decorative works such as finishing coat of concrete
floors, face plaster to walls, etc.
(b) They are also used in mortars to be used for floors and wall tiles and
for ornamental concrete works.

1.5.7 High Alumina Cement

It is produced by grinding clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. The
proportion of alumina varies from 35% to 45% and the ratio of alumina to
lime is in between 0.85 to 1.3. It is not only a rapid hardening cement but
also a higher ultimate strength cement. It resists the action of acids and can
withstand high temperature. This cement is costlier than OPC.
Following are the uses of high alumina cement :
(a) It is very useful for chemical plants and lining of furnaces.
(b) It is used for structures subjected to the action of sea water,
chemical and other such agents.
1.5.8 Hydrophobic Cement

The hydrophobic cement contains admixtures, which decrease the wetting

ability of cement grains. The hydrophobic admixtures like oxidized
petrolatum, acidol, etc. form a thin film around cement grains. When water is
added to hydrophobic cement, the absorption films are torn off the surface
and they do not in any way prevent the normal hardening of cement. In initial
stage the gain in strength is less as hydrophobic films on cement grains
prevent the interaction with water. The strength of hydrophobic cement after
28 days is equal to that of OPC.
Following are the uses of hydrophobic cement :
(a) It is used in the structures where high frost resistance or water
resistance is required.
(b) It is used in humid places where storage of OPC causes
deterioration in the quality of cement.

1.5.9 Pozzolana Cement

The pozzolana cement is a volcanic powder. It resembles surkhi, which is
prepared by burning bricks made from ordinary soils. It can also be processed
from shales and certain types of clays. The pozzolana material should be
between 10% to 30%.
Following are the use of pozzolana cement :
(a) It is used in sewage works and for laying concrete under water.
(b) It is used for marine structures.

1.5.10 Oil Well Cement

This is a special type of cement required for sealing oil wells. Sealing is
necessary to prevent the sides of the freshly drilled well from collapsing and
to keep ground water out of the well shaft. This type of cement is
manufactured by adjusting the proportion of iron oxide so that all the alumina
is converted to tetra-calcium alumino ferrite (C4AF). Due to this the
proportion of the compound tri-calcium aluminate (C3A) formed is very small
and thus the setting time of cement is increased.
Following are the uses of oil-well cement :
(a) It is used for cementing the oil wells.
(b) It is also used to protect the oil well casing from corrosion.

1.5.11 Expanding Cement

It is manufactured by adding an expanding medium like sulpho-aluminate
and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. Hence, this cement expands
whereas other cements shrink.
Following are the uses of expanding cement :
(a) It is used for repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.
(b) It is used for the construction of water retaining structures.
1.5.12 Quick Setting Cement
It is manufactured by adding a small percentage of aluminium sulphate and
by finely grinding the cement. The low percentage of gypsum or retarder is
used for quick setting action of cement. The setting action of cement starts
within five minutes after addition of water and it becomes hard like stone in
less than 30 minutes or so.
Following are the uses of quick setting cement :
(a) It is used to lay concrete under static water or running water.

1.6 Additional information

Sulphate resisting cement

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRC) is a type of Portland cement in which the
quantity of tricalcium alumiante is less than 5%. It can be used for purposes
wherever Portland Pozzolana Cement, Slag Cement, and Ordinary Portland Cement
are used.
The use of Portland Sulphate Resisting Cement has proved beneficial, particularly
in conditions where there is a risk of damage to the concrete from sulphate attack.
The use of Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement is recommended in places where the
concrete is in contact with the soil, ground water, exposed to seacoast, and sea
water. In all these conditions, the concrete is exposed to attack from sulphates that
are present in excessive amounts, which damage the structure. This is the reason
that the use of the Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement have increased in India.

The Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement should be kept in a place which is dry
otherwise through premature hydration and carbonation the quality of cement
deteriorates. The cement industry in India manufactures Sulphate Resisting
Portland Cement in large quantities so that it is able to meet the domestic demand
and also export to other countries as well. The Indian cement industry exports
cement chiefly to the West Asian countries

The various uses of Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement are:

 Underground and basements structures

 Works in coastal areas
 Piles and foundations
 Water and sewage treatment plants
 Sugar, chemical, and fertilizers factories
 Petrochemical and food processing industries

Porland Pozzolana cement

Portland Pozzolana Cement is manufactured by blending pozzolanic materials,

OPC clinker, and gypsum either grinding them together or separately. Today
Portland Pozzolana Cement is widely in demand for industrial and residential
buildings, roads, dams, and machine foundations.

Pozzolana is an important ingredient in PPC which is commonly used in the form

of:

 Fly ash
 Volcanic ash
 Silica fumes
 Calcined clay
PPC is resistant to harsh water attacks and prevents the formation of calcium
hydroxide at the time of cement setting and hydration. It withstands aggressive
gases, thermal cracks, wet cracking, etc. The BIS quality specifications for
Pozzolana materials used in PPC have been mentioned below:

 Fly ash - IS 3812:1981

 Calcined clay - IS 1344:1981

PPC is used in heavy load infrastructure and constructions such as marine

structures, hydraulic structures, mass concreting works, plastering, masonry
mortars, and all applications of ordinary Portland cement. One of the top Indian
brands of Portland Pozzolana is 'Shudh Cement' manufactured by Tata Chemicals
Limited.

Shudh cement has 5 percent of the market share and is available abundantly in
Gujarat, penetrating all 3 - primary, secondary, and tertiary markets. Some of the
other big names in the Portland Pozzolana manufacture are Ultratech, Ambuja,etc.

Low Heat Cement

 It is well known that hydration of cement is an exothermic action which

produces large quantity of heat during hydration.
 Formation of cracks in large bodyof concrete due to heat of hydration has
focussed the attention of the concrete technologists to produce a kind of
cement which produces less heat or the same amount of heat, at a low rate
during the hydration process.
 Cement having this property was developed in U.S.A. during 1930 fo r use
in mass concrete construction, such as dams, where temperature rise by the
heat of hydration can become excessively large.
 A low-heat evolution is achieved by reducing the contents of C3S and C3A
which are the compounds evolving the maximum heat of hydration and
increasing C2S.
 A reduction of temperature will retard the chemical action of hardening and
so further restrict the rate of evolution of heat. The rate of evolution of heat
will, therefore, be less and evolution of heat will extend over a longer
period.
 The specific surface of low heat cement as found out by air-permeability
method is not less than 3200 sq. cm/gm. The 7 days strength of low heat
 cement is not less than 16 MPa in contrast to 22 MPa in the case of
ordinary Portland cement. Other properties, such as setting time and
soundness are same as that of ordinary Portland cement.

Benefits of Low Heat Cement

• Assists in minimising the potential for thermal cracking in thick concrete sections
• Significantly improved later-age concrete strengths
• Improved durability performance
• Increased workability and pumpability with large pours
Product applications
Low Heat Cement is ideal for mass concrete applications, including:
• Constructing dams
• Large footings, large raft slabs, wind turbine plinths
• Very high strength concrete

1.7 Hydration of cement

The chemical reactions that take place between cement and water is referred
as hydration of cement. The quality, quantity, continuity, stability and the
rate of formation of the hydration products are important. Anhydrous cement
compounds when mixed with water, react with each other to form hydrated
compounds of very low solubility.
The hydration of cement can be visualised in two ways.
The first is “through solution” mechanism. In this the cement compounds
dissolve to produce a supersaturated solution from which different hydrated
products get precipitated.
The second possibility is that water attacks cement compounds in the solid
state converting the compounds into hydrated products starting from the
surface and proceeding to the interior of the compounds with time.
It is probable that both “through solution” and “solid state” types of
mechanism may occur during the course of reactions between cement and
water.
1.8 Products of hydration
The hydration process is not an instantaneous one. The reaction is faster in
the early period and continues idenfinitely at a decreasing rate. Complete
hydration cannot be obtained under a period of one year or more unless the
cement is very finely ground and reground with excess of water to expose
fresh surfaces at intervals.

1.8.1 Calcium Silicate Hydrates

During the course of reaction of C3S and C2S with water, calcium silicate
hydrate, abbreviated C-S-H and calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 are formed.
Calcium silicate hydrates are the most important products. It determines the
good properties of concrete. It makes up 50-60 per cent of the volume of
solids in a completely hydrated cement paste. The morphology of C-S-H
shows a poorly crystalline fibrous mass.
C3S readily reacts with water and produces more heat of hydration. It is
responsible for early strength of concrete. Cement with more C3S content is
better for cold weather concreting. The quality and density of calcium silicate
hydrate formed out of C3S is slightly inferior to that formed by C2S. The early
strength of concrete is due to C3S.
C2S hydrates rather slowly. It is responsible for the later strength of concrete.
It produces less heat of hydration. The calcium silicate hydrate formed is
rather dense and its specific surface is higher. In general, the quality of the
product of hydration of C2S is better than that produced in the hydration of
C3S.

1.8.2 Calcium Hydroxide

The other products of hydration of C3S and C2S are calcium hydroxide. In
contrast to the C-S-H, the calcium hydroxide is a compound with distinctive
hexagonal prism morphology. It constitutes 20 to 25 per cent of the volume
of solids in the hydrated paste.
The lack of durability of concrete, is on account of the presence of calcium
hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide also reacts with sulphates present in soils
or water to form calcium sulphate which further reacts with C3A and cause
deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack.
To reduce the quantity of Ca(OH)2 in concrete and to overcome its bad
effects by converting it into cementitious product is an advancement in
concrete technology. The use of blending materials such as fly ash, silica
fume and such other pozzolanic materials are the steps to overcome bad
effect of Ca(OH)2 in concrete. The only advantage is that Ca(OH)2, being
alkaline in nature maintain pH value around 13 in the concrete which resists
the corrosion of reinforcements.

1.8.3 Calcium Aluminate Hydrates

Due to the hydration of C3A , a calcium aluminate system CaO – Al2O3 – H2O
is formed. The cubic compound C3AH6 is probably the only stable compound
formed which remains stable upto about 225°C. The reaction of pure C3A
with water is very fast and this may lead to flash set. To prevent this flash set,
gypsum is added at the time of grinding the cement clinker. The quantity of
gypsum added has a bearing on the quantity of C3A present. The hydrated
aluminates do not contribute to strength of concrete.
On hydration, C4AF is believed to form a system of the form CaO – Fe2O3 –
H2O. A hydrated calcium ferrite of the form C3FH6 is comparatively more
stable. This hydrated product does not contribute anything to the strength.
The hydrates of C4AF show a comparatively higher resistance to the attack of
sulphates than the hydrates of calcium aluminate.
Depending upon the concentration of aluminate and sulphate ions in solution,
the pricipitating crystalline product is either the calcium aluminate trisulphate
hydrate (C6A S 3H32) or calcium aluminate monosulhphate hydrate (C4A S
H18). The calcium aluminate trisulphate hydrate is known as ettringite.
Ettringite is usually the first to hydrate and crystallise as short prismatic
needle on account of the high sulphate/aluminate ratio in solution phase
during the first hour of hydration.

1.9 Heat of Hydration

The reaction of cement with water is exothermic. The reaction liberates a
considerable quantity of heat. This liberation of heat is called heat of
hydration.

1.10 Transition zone

Concrete is generally considered as two phase material i.e., paste phase and
aggregates phase.
At macro level it is seen that aggregate particles are dispersed in a matrix of
cement paste.
At the microscopic level, the complexities of the concrete begin to show up,
particularly in the vicinity of large aggregate particles. This area can be
considered as a third phase, the transition zone, which represents the
interfacial region between the particles of coarse aggregate and hardened
cement paste.
Transition zone is generally a plane of weakness and has a greater influence
on the mechanical behaviour of concrete. Although transition zone is
composed of same bulk cement paste, the quality of paste in the transition
zone is of poorer quality. Firstly due to internal bleeding, water accumulates
below elongated, flaky and large pieces of aggregates. This reduces the bond
between paste and aggregate.

1.11 Water requirement for hydration

C3S requires 24% of water by weight of cement and C2S requires 21%. It has
also been estimated that on an average 23% of water by weight of cement is
required for chemical reaction with Portland cement compounds. This 23%
of water chemically combines with cement and, therefore, it is called bound
water. A certain quantity of water is imbibed within the gel-pores. This water
is known as gel-water.
It can be said that bound water and gel-water are complimentary to each
other. If the quantity of water is inadequate to fill up the gel-pores, the
formations of gel itself will stop and if the formation of gel stops there is no
question of gel-pores being present. It has been further estimated that about
15 per cent by weight of cement is required to fill up the gel-pores.
Therefore, a total 38 per cent of water by weight of cement is required for the
complete chemical reactions and to occupy the space within gel-pores.
On the other hand, if more than 38 per cent of water is used, then the excess
water will cause undesirable capillary cavities. Therefore greater the water
above the minimum required is used (38 per cent), the more will be the
undesirable capillary cavities. In all this it is assumed that hydration is taking
place in a sealed container, where moisture to and from the paste does not
take place.
It can be seen that the capillary cavities become larger with increased
water/cement ratio. With lower w/c ratio the cement particles are closer
together. With the progress of hydration, when the volume of anhydrous
cement increases, the product of hydration also increases. The increase in the
volume of gel due to complete hydration could fill up the space earlier
occupied by water upto a w/c ratio of 0.6 or so. If the w/c ratio is more than
0.7, the increase in volume of the hydrated product would never be sufficient
to fill up the voids created by water. Such concrete would ever remain as
porous mass. This is to say that gel occupies more and more space, that once
occupied by mixing water. It has been estimated that the volume of gel would
be about twice the volume of unhydrated cement.
1.12 Water cement ratio

Strength of concrete primarily depends upon the strength of cement paste.

Abrams water/cement ratio law states that the strength of concrete is only
dependent upon water/cement ratio provided the mix is workable.

Fig. 1.1 shows the relationship between compressive strength and

cement/water ratio.

1.13 Gel/Space Ratio

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the hydrated cement paste to the
sum of volumes of the hydrated cement and of the capillary pores.
Power’s experiment showed that the strength of concrete bears a specific
relationship with the gel/space ratio. He found the relationship to be 240 x3,
where x is the gel/space ratio and 240 represents the intrinsic strength of the
gel in MPa for the type of cement and specimen used. Gel/space ratio can be
calculated at any age and for any fraction of hydration of cement.
Calculation of gel/space ratio for complete hydration
Let C = weight of cement in gm.
VC = specific volume of cement = 0.319 ml/gm.
WO = volume of mixing water in ml.
Assuming that 1 ml. of cement on hydration will produce 2.06 ml of gel,
Volume of gel = C x 0.319 x 2.06

Space available = C x 0.319 + WO

1.13.1 Numerical

Calculate the gel/space ratio and the theoretical strength of a sample of

concrete made with 500 gm. of cement with 0.5 water/cement ratio, on full
hydration and at 60 per cent hydration.

Gel/space ratio on full hydration =

Theoretical strength of concrete = 240 x (0.8)3 = 123 MPa

Gel/space ratio for 60 percent hydration

1.14 Testing of portland cement

To know the quality of a Portland cement, it should be tested before its use is
recommended for any important engineering work. Care should be taken to
collect the sample of cement. In order to make a representative sample, it is
desirable to collect the sample from at least 12 different bags or barrels or
containers or from 12 different positions in a heap if the cement is loose. The
quantity of cement so collected is intimately mixed and the final sample of
cement weighing at least 5 kg is prepared. It is then stored in air-tight
container till the tests are started.
The properties of concrete mainly depend upon the quantity of cement used.
To know the quality of Portland cement it should be tested before its use for
any important engineering work. Testing of cement can be done by two
ways.
(a) Field testing, and
(b) Laboratory testing.

1.14.1 Field Tests

The following are the field tests on cement :

(a) The colour of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey
colour with a light greenish shade.
(b) The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are
formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Any
bag of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.
(c) The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between
fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
(d) If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should
feel cool and not warm.
(e) If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the
particles should float for sometime before it sink.
 (f) A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate
and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not
crack.
(g) A block of cement 25 mm × 25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared
and it is immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on
supports 15cm apart and it is loaded with a weight of about 34
kg. The block should not show signs of failure.
(h) The briquettes of a lean mortar (1 : 6) are made. The size of
briquette may be about 75 mm × 25 mm × 12 mm. They are
immersed in water for a period of 3 days. If cement is of sound
quality such briquettes will not be broken easily.

1.14.2 Laboratory Tests

For examining the suitability of cement the following laboratory tests are
usually performed.
(a) Chemical composition
(b) Fineness
(c) Consistency
(d) Setting time
(e) Soundness test
(f) Compressive strength
(g) Tensile strength
1.14.3 Chemical Composition
The various tests are carried out to determine the chemical constituents of
cement. Following are the chemical requirements of ordinary cement as per
BIS 269-1975 :
(a) Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide should not be
less than 0.66.
 (b) Ratio of percentage of lime to those of alumina, iron oxide and
silica should not be less than 0.66 and it should not be greater
than 1.02.
(c) The total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4 %.
(d) The total sulphur content is calculated as SO3 and it should not be
greater than 2.75 %.
(e) The weight of insoluble residue should not be greater than 1.50 %.
(f) The weight of magnesia should not exceed 5 %.

1.14.4 Fineness Test

It is carried out to check proper grinding of cement. The fineness of cement
particles may be determined either by sieve test or by permeability apparatus
test.
In sieve test, 100 gm of the cement is taken and it is continuously passed for
15 minutes through standard BIS sieve No. 9 (90 micron). The residue is then
weighed and this weight should not be more than 10% of original weight for
OPC.
In permeability apparatus test, specific surface area of cement particles is
calculated. This test is better than sieve test and it gives an idea of uniformity
of fineness. The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of
particles of average size. The specific surface of cement should not be less
than 2250 cm2/gm.
1.14.5 Consistency Test
The purpose of test is to determine the quantity of water required for standard
consistency. For finding out setting time and soundness of cement standard
consistency has to be used. Standard or normal consistency of a cement paste
is defined as that consistency which will permit the ‘Vicat plunger’ 10 mm
diameter and 40 to 50 mm in length to penetrate to a point 5 to 7 mm from
the bottom (or 33 to 35 mm from the top) of the Vicat mould when the
cement paste is tested within 3 to 5 minutes after the cement is thoroughly
mixed with water.
Vicat apparatus consists of a metal frame, movable rod with cap at the top
and plunger at the bottom end and a mould as shown in Fig 1.1. The weight
of movable rod along with cap and attachment is limited up to 300 gms. It is
provided with a releasing pin to make the rod free and is attached with an
indicator to take readings on a vertical scale, which is graduated from 0 to 40
mm in either direction.

Fig 1.1 Vicat’s Apparatus

To perform this test take about 400 gm of cement and prepare a paste with a
weighed quantity of water, say 25%. The paste obtained should be filled in
the mould of the Vicat apparatus. The interval of time between the instant of
adding water to the dry cement and the instant of commencement of filling
the mould is called the time of gauging. The time of gauging must be
between 3 to 5 minutes.
The plunger of diameter 10 mm is lowered gently on to the paste in the
mould. The settlement of the plunger is noted. If the settlement is between 5
to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould (or 33 to 35 mm from the top), the
amount of water added is correct and is corresponding to standard
consistency of cement. If this condition is not satisfied, the test must be
repeated again changing the percentage of water until the required extent of
penetration of the plunger is reached.
Let W1 = Weight of cement taken for the test, and
W2 = Weight of water added for desired penetration
Percentage of water for normal consistency = P = (W2/W1) × 100.
It varies from 25 % to 35 %.

1. 14.6 Setting Time Test

This test is used to check the initial and final setting times of the cement. The
initial setting time is determined so as to give sufficient time for various
operations like mixing, transportation, placing and compaction of cement
concrete or cement mortar. The final setting time is determined to find that
after laying the cement concrete or mortar, the hardening should be rapid so
that the structure may be made in use as early as possible. For determining
the setting time of cement Vicat apparatus is used.
Initial Setting Time
The initial setting time is the interval between the addition of water to cement
and the stage when needle (1 mm square; 40 to 50 mm length) fails to pierce
the test block by about 5 mm from the bottom. The cement of weight 400 gm
is taken and it is mixed with 0.85 P percentage of water where P is the % of
water as determined in consistency test. The cement paste is filled in the
Vicat mould. The square needle of cross section 1 mm × 1 mm called as
initial setting time needle is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat
apparatus. The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the
cement paste. In the beginning, the needle penetrates completely. It is then
taken out and dropped at a fresh place. The procedure is repeated until the
needle fails to pierce the cement paste in block for about 5 mm, measured
from the bottom of the mould. The time thus recorded shall be the initial
setting time. The care should be taken that each time the needle should be
cleaned and released at a new place, on the top surface of the paste. The time
from the stopwatch and readings from the scale should be recorded
continuously.
Final Setting Time
The final setting time is defined as period elapsing between the time when
water is added to cement and the time at which the final setting time needle
of 1 mm square section with 5 mm diameter attachment makes an impression
on the test block while the attachment fails to do so.
In this test, the initial setting time needle is replaced by final setting time
needle, with an annular attachment. It is released on the top surface of the
mould at regular intervals and the time is recorded. In the beginning, the
needle and the collar will make impression on the surface of the paste. When
the cement is finally set, only needle will make the impression and the collar
will fail to do so. The time thus recorded shall be the final setting time. Care
must be taken to clean the needle each time and the needle should be released
at a new place in each trial.
1.14.7 Soundness
The phenomenon by virtue of which cement does not undergo large change
in volume when treated with water is called as soundness.
If the quantity of free lime and magnesia is present in excess during the
manufacture of cement, it is liable to remain uncombined and be over-burnt
in the kiln. The cement concrete or mortar of such cement is liable to expand
after the setting action is completed. It is one of the causes of cracking of
cement. Soundness test is performed to accelerate the slaking action of free
lime and magnesia, if they exist by the application of heat, thereby detecting
the defect in a short time.
The unsoundness may be reduced by
(a) fine grinding,
(b) thorough mixing,
(c) limiting the MgO content to less than 0.5 %, and
(d) allowing the cement to aerate for several days.

Unsoundness is generally expressed by the expansion of cement paste by Le-

Chatelier method.
Le-Chatelier apparatus consist of a small split cylinder of spring brass of
thickness 0.5 mm, forming a mould 30 mm high as shown in Fig 1.2. Two
indicators with pointed ends are attached on both sides of the split (which
should not be more than 0.5 mm). The distance from these ends to the center
of the cylinder is 165 mm.

Fig 1.2 Le-Chatelier apparatus

In this test, 100 gm of cement is taken and 0.78 P water is added, where P is
the percentage of water required for normal consistency paste. It is mixed
thoroughly for about three minutes. Remove air bubble from the cement
paste, if any. Cement paste is then filled into the mould, resting on a glass
plate (within five minutes from the instant water is added). The mould is then
smoothened and covered with another glass plate. A small weight is placed
on the top and whole assembly is immediately submerged in water at a
temperature of 27oC to 32oC for 24 hours. Then the mould is removed from
water and the distance separating the indicator points is measured. The whole
assembly is submerged again in water and the water is heated till it reaches
the boiling point in 25 to 30 minutes. The mould is kept in boiling water for
three hours. Then the mould is taken out of water and allowed to cool. After
cooling, the distance between pointers is again measured. The difference
between these two measurements represents the expansion of cement. For
ordinary Portland cement, rapid hardening cement and low heat cement the
expansion shall not be more than 10 mm.

1.14.8 Compressive Strength Test

This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement. The
mortar of cement and standard sand is prepared. The proportion is 1 : 3 which
means that x gm of cement is mixed with 3x gm of standard sand. Instead of
standard sand, ordinary sand passing through 850 micron IS sieve and not
more than 10 % by weight passing through 600 micron IS sieve may be used.
To perform this test, 200 gm of cement and 600 gm of standard sand by
weight are taken and mixed dry in a non-porous mixing pan to uniform
colour with the help of a trowel for compression strength minute as shown in
Fig. 1.3. The water is added at the rate of P/4 + 3 percent of water when
ordinary sand is used by weight of cement and sand mix together where P is
the percentage of water required for a paste of standard consistency. It is
mixed thoroughly to an even colour for about three minutes. The cube mould
made of metal of size 70.6 mm is placed on a non-porous base plate and is
oiled from inside. The mould is fitted on the table of the vibrating machine.
Immediately after mixing, the mortar is put into the cube mould and is
compacted for two minutes by the vibrations of the machine, which runs at a
speed of 1200 ± 400 vibrations per minute. The filling and compaction of
mould should be finished within 5 minutes from the instant water is added to
mortar. The mould is then removed and the top surface is smoothened off by
the single stroke of a trowel. The prepared cubes are kept at a temperature of
27oC ± 2oC in an atmosphere of at least 90% relative humidity for 24 hours.
Then the cubes of mortar are removed from the mould and immersed in water
for curing until taken out for testing, i.e. after 3 or 7 or 28 days.

Fig 1.3 Compressive Strength testing Machine

1.15 Tests on aggregates

Aggregates are very important ingredients of concrete due to the following

reasons :
(a) They provide body and strength to the concrete (role of aggregates
is similar to that of bones in human body).
(b) They occupy about 75% volume of concrete and being
comparatively cheaper as compared to the other ingredients, they
govern economy of concrete.
(c) Not only the strength of concrete but also other properties are
governed by aggregates such as durability, workability,
shrinkage, volume, stability, etc.

Earlier it was believed that aggregates are inert material but later on it was
established that some of the aggregates (depending upon their chemical
composition) are chemically active. Therefore, it is necessary to study each
and every property of aggregates namely, size, shape, grading, surface
texture, specific gravity, density, impact and crushing strength, abrasion
value, soundness and chemical composition.
Aggregates, used in concrete, can be natural or artificial type and are broadly
classified as coarse aggregates (size > 4.75 mm) and fine aggregates (size <
4.75 mm). The coarse aggregates, locally known as ‘gitti’, are generally
available in 80, 40, 20, 10 and 4.75 mm sizes. The fine aggregates (i.e. sand)
popularly known as ‘ret’ or ‘bajri’ can be conveniently grouped into coarse,
medium and fine sand.

1. 15.1Sieve Analysis of Aggregates

Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the coarse
and fine aggregates. This is done by sieving the aggregates as per IS: 2386
(Part I) – 1963. In this we use different sieves as standardized by the IS code
and then pass aggregates through them and thus collect different sized
particles left over different sieves.
The apparatus used are –

i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes – 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm,31.5mm, 25mm,

20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm,
600µm, 300µm, 150µm and 75µm.
ii) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the weight of
the test sample.
The weight of sample available should not be less than the weight given in
Table 3.

Table 3 Weights of the aggregates

The sample for sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either by
quartering or by means of a sample divider.

Procedure to determine particle size distribution of Aggregates

i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5oC
and weighed.

ii) The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.

iii) On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a
percentage of the total sample weight.
v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of
aggregates retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.

Reporting of Results
The results should be calculated and reported as:
i) the cumulative percentage by weight of the total sample
ii) the percentage by weight of the total sample passing through one sieve and
retained on the next smaller sieve, to the nearest 0.1 percent. The results of
the sieve analysis may be recorded graphically on a semi-log graph with
particle size as abscissa (log scale) and the percentage smaller than the
specified diameter as ordinate.

The observations of the sieve analysis, put in tabular form, are used for
drawing the grading curve, defining the grading of aggregate and for
determining the fineness modulus as explained in subsequent paragraphs.
Also, by comparing the results of sieve analysis of fine aggregates with the
standard table 4 of IS 383: 1970 the zones of sand (I, II, III or IV) can be
identified. The Zone I indicates coarse sand and Zone IV represents fine
sand. This information is useful in performing the concrete mix design. It is
recommended that use of the fine aggregates, conforming to Zone IV, should
be avoided in reinforced concrete unless the suitability of using such
aggregates is ascertained through tests.

1. 15.2 Aggregate Impact Value

This test is done to determine the aggregate impact value of coarse

aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963. The apparatus used for
determining aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates is
Impact testing machine ( Fig 1.4) conforming to IS: 2386 (Part IV)- 1963,IS
Sieves of sizes – 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm, A cylindrical metal measure
of 75mm dia. and 50mm depth, A tamping rod of 10mm circular cross
section and 230mm length, rounded at one end and Oven.
Preparation of Sample
i) The test sample should conform to the following grading:
- Passing through 12.5mm IS Sieve – 100%
- Retention on 10mm IS Sieve – 100%

ii) The sample should be oven-dried for 4hrs. at a temperature of 100 to

110oC and cooled.

iii) The measure should be about one-third full with the prepared aggregates
and tamped with 25 strokes of the tamping rod.

A further similar quantity of aggregates should be added and a further

tamping of 25 strokes given. The measure should finally be filled to
overflow, tamped 25 times and the surplus aggregates struck off, using a
tamping rod as a straight edge. The net weight of the aggregates in the
measure should be determined to the nearest gram (Weight ‘A’).

Fig 1.4 Impact testing Machine for Aggregtes

Procedure to determine Aggregate Impact Value

i) The cup of the impact testing machine should be fixed firmly in position on
the base of the machine and the whole of the test sample placed in it and
compacted by 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
ii) The hammer should be raised to 380mm above the upper surface of the
aggregates in the cup and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregates. The test
sample should be subjected to a total of 15 such blows, each being delivered
at an interval of not less than one second.

Reporting of Results

i) The sample should be removed and sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve. The
fraction passing through should be weighed (Weight ‘B’). The fraction
retained on the sieve should also be weighed (Weight ‘C’) and if the total
weight (B+C) is less than the initial weight (A) by more than one gram, the
result should be discarded and a fresh test done.
ii) The ratio of the weight of the fines formed to the total sample weight
should be expressed as a percentage.

Aggregate impact value = (B/A) x 100%

iii) Two such tests should be carried out and the mean of the results should be
reported.

1.15.3 Aggregate Abrasion Value

This test helps to determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregates as per IS:
2386 (Part IV) – 1963.
The apparatus used in this test are Los Angles abrasion testing machine, IS
Sieve of size – 1.7mm, Abrasive charge – 12 nos. cast iron or steel spheres
approximately 48mm dia. and each weighing between 390 and 445g ensuring
that the total weight of charge is 5000 +25g and Oven.
Sample Preparation.

The test sample should consist of clean aggregates which has been dried in an
oven at 105 to 110oC to a substantially constant weight and should conform
to one of the gradings shown in the Table 4
 .

Table 4 Grading of test samples

Procedure to determine Aggregate Abrasion Value

The test sample and the abrasive charge should be placed in the Los Angles
abrasion testing machine and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33
revolutions/minute for 1000 revolutions. At the completion of the test, the
material should be discharged and sieved through 1.70mm IS Sieve.
 Fig 1.5 Dorry’s Arasion testing AMchine

Reporting of Results
i) The material coarser than 1.70mm IS Sieve should be washed, dried in an
oven at a temperature of 100 to 110oC to a constant weight and weighed
(Weight ‘B’).
ii) The proportion of loss between weight ‘A’ and weight ‘B’ of the test
sample should be expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the test
sample. This value should be reported as,

Aggregate abrasion value = (A-B)/B x 100%.

1. 15.4 Density and Specific Gravity

Bulk Density
The density of aggregate-material and the density of aggregate-sample
are different in the sense that latter is defined as the weight of the
sample of aggregates that would fill a unit volume in a standard
manner. The sample of aggregates always has the volume occupied by
voids and the solid aggregate. That is why the density of aggregate
sample is designated as bulk density of aggregate. It depends on how
densely the aggregates are packed which further depend on the shape,
size, grading and moisture content of the aggregates. So, higher bulk
density indicates lesser voids.
Apparent Specific Gravity
 The specific gravity of an aggregate in its absolute sense is the ratio of
the weight of the solid in a given volume of sample to the weight of an
equal void-free volume of water at the same temperature. Due to the
presence of internal voids in the aggregates specific gravity of
aggregate is more conveniently designated as apparent specific gravity.
It is defined as ratio of the weight of oven dried aggregate to the weight
of water occupying the volume of aggregates (including the volume of
internal voids). It is determined in the laboratory by the following
formula :
ApparentSpecificGravity=−c/b
where, c = Weight of aggregates dried in an oven at 100º-110ºC for 24
hours, and
b = Weight of saturated surface dry aggregates in water.
Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) Condition Saturated surface dry condition
means the aggregate is saturated and there is no water film (moisture) on the
surface of aggregate. The specific gravity based on the SSD condition is most
frequently used in concrete technology. Because the water present in the
internal pores of the aggregate does not contribute in the hydration process so
it can be considered as part of the aggregate.
Comments
The bulk density is used to convert the weight proportion into the
volume proportion or vice-versa and to judge the quality and
grading of aggregates by comparing it with the normal density of
that type of aggregates. It is also used for determining the void
ratio.

The range of average specific gravity for many commonly available rocks is
2.6 to 2.7. Any variation in the specific gravity indicates the variation in
shape/grading of aggregate. It is useful in determining the percentage voids
of aggregates. It also helps in converting the weight of aggregates into solid
volume and also used for determining the compacting factor in workability
test.
1.15.5 Water Absorption and Surface Moisture

Water Absorption
All aggregates have permeable pores of varying sizes over a wide
range, which causes porosity. The porosity varies from 0 to 20 percent
for commonly available rocks. The water absorption of aggregate is
the percentage of water absorbed by an aggregate after immersing it
into the water in standard manner for 24 hours and then bringing it to
saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. The average range of water
absorption for commonly available aggregates is 0.5-1.0 percent.
Free Moisture Content or Surface Moisture
Free moisture content is the quantity of water, present in an aggregate
sample, in excess of the saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. This is
also termed as free moisture, which is readily available for hydration
process. Necessary correction in measuring the quantity of water must
be done during batching so as to maintain the desired water cement
ratio.
Comments
It is necessary to know the free moisture content of aggregate at site. In the
calculation of mix design the weights of aggregates are based on the SSD
condition, but in practice this SSD condition is very rare. In fact, the actual
moisture content of aggregates is mostly either more than or less than that
required for SSD condition. So, it is necessary to make the necessary
correction in the weight of aggregates and also in the quantity of water, so
that the desired proportion of all the ingredients and required water cement
ratio could be maintained as per the mix-design. Any variation in the quantity
of water will lead to weak and poor quality concrete.

1.15.6 Bulking of Sand

The moisture content of fine aggregates is also equally important. The fine
aggregates in the damp condition may be subjected to bulking phenomenon.
Increase in volume of a given weight of sand (fine aggregate) caused by the
presence of moisture (within certain limit) is termed as bulking. The
presence of moisture forms a film of water around the sand particles due to
surface tension, which pushes the sand particles apart and volume of sand
increases. The volume of sand goes on increasing with the increase in
moisture content but only up to a certain limit, i.e. 5-6 percent. Beyond this,
the surface tension reduces to the extent that the water film is destroyed. The
sand particles loose the repulsive action and volume starts reducing.
The bulking phenomenon of fine aggregates is explained in Fig1.6. The
figure clearly indicates that the finer sand bulks considerably more as
compared to coarse and medium sand. The bulking phenomenon is almost
absent in the case of coarse aggregates as they are larger in size and heavy in
weight.

Fig 1.6 Bulking of sand

The range of bulking for the commonly available sand is 15-30 percent. The
bulking plays an important role in volume batching of fine aggregates for
manufacturing of concrete (see Unit 5). If the necessary correction to
compensate the bulking is not made, such concrete mix will be under-sanded,
because the measured volume of bulked sand is greater than the actual
volume of the sand.

1.16 Water for mixing Concrete

Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or
odor can be used as mixing water for making concrete. Some water which
may not be suitable for drinking may still be safe for mixing concrete.

Pipe born drinking water supplies are generally safe for making concrete.
Water of doubtful quality can be simply tested by making two sets of cubes
or cylinders of the same mix, one with the doubtful water, and the other (used
as a reference) set with distilled water, purified water, tap water, or other
drinkable water of good quality. If the suspected water produces concrete of
28 day compressive strengths at least 90% of the strength of the companion
(reference) set, it can be considered suitable.

Salt or brackish water can cause dampness of the concrete, efflorescence

(white deposits of precipitated salts on the surface of the concrete), increased
risk of corrosion (rust) damage to embedded reinforcement, and damage to
paint systems. It is therefore advisable not to use such water for durable
concrete work, and its use is generally avoided. (Concrete which has to be
placed permanently under sea water would obviously not require such
precautions).
Typical limits of chemicals allowed in mixing water for concrete are
specified in ASTM C94 92*: which provides a useful guide as to allowances
that have worked in practice.

Some General Precautions

1. Avoid using wastewater from tanneries, from industrial, chemical and

metals related plants (e.g. galvanizing plants, battery making plants);
as some salts of manganese, tin, zinc, copper and lead can cause
significant reductions in strength and large variations in the setting
time of concrete.
 2. Avoid waters from abattoirs, chicken processing plants, etc.
impurities in such waters may have severe effects on concrete.
3. Avoid waters from swamps, marshes etc., which may contain organic
impurities in amounts sufficient to interfere with the setting and
hardening reactions of the cement.
4. Avoid water containing algae; algae can cause excessive reductions in
strength by influencing cement hydration or by causing a large
amount of air to be entrained in the concrete mix. Algae may also be
present on aggregate surfaces, in which case they reduce the bond
between the aggregate particles and the cement paste and so will
reduce concrete strengths. 5. Sugar. This is to be avoided at all costs
*ASTM C94 92 "Standard Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete".
99 de
Relatively small amounts of sugar can cause problems of non-setting
and non hardening of concrete in quantities as low as 0.25% of the
mass of the cement.

The quantity of water in the mix plays a vital role on the strength of the
concrete. Some water which have adverse effect on hardened concrete.
Sometimes may not be harmless or even beneficial during mixing. So clear
distinction should be made between the effect on hardened concrete and the
quality of mixing water.

Potable water as mixing water:

The common specifications regarding quality of mixing water is water should
be fit for drinking. Such water should have inorganic solid less than 1000
ppm. This content lead to a solid quantity 0.05% of mass of cement when w/c
ratio is provided 0.5 resulting small effect on strength.
But some water which are not potable may be used in making concrete with
any significant effect. Dark color or bad smell water may be used if they do
not posses deleterious substances. PH of water to even 9 is allowed if it not
tastes brackish. In coastal areas where local water is saline and have no
alternate sources, the chloride concentration up to 1000 ppm is even allowed
for drinking. But this excessive amount of alkali carbonates and bicarbonates,
in some natural mineral water, may cause alkali-silica reaction.

Determination of Suitability of Mixing Water:

A simple way of determining the suitability of such water is to compare the
setting time of cement and the strength of mortar cubes using the water in
question with the corresponding results obtained using known suitable or
distilled water. About 10% tolerance is generally allowed. Such tests are
recommended when water for which no service record is available containing
dissolved solids in excess of 2000 ppm or, in excess of 1000 ppm. When
unusual solids are present a test is also advisable( Table 1.5).

Table 1.5 Allowable limits of water for making concrete

Quality Parameters Maimum Limit (ppm)

Chlorides 500
SO3 1000
Alkali Carbonates
1000
and Bicarbonates
Turbidity 2000

The effect on concreting for different types of contamination or impurities

are described below:

Suspended Solids:
Mixing water which high content of suspended solids should be allowed to
stand in a setting basing before use as it is undesirable to introduce large
quantities of clay and slit into the concrete.

Acidity and Alkalinity:

Natural water that are slightly acidic are harmless, but presence of humic or
other organic acids may result adverse affect over the hardening of concrete.
Water which are highly alkaline should also be tested.
Algae:
The presence of algae in mixing water causes air entrainments with a
consequent loss of strength. The green or brown slime forming algae should
be regarded with suspicion and such water should be tested carefully.

Sea Water:
Sea water contains a total salinity of about 3.5%(78% of the dissolved solids
being NaCl and 15% MgCl2 and MgSO4), which produces a slightly higher
early strength but a lower long-term strength. The loss of strength is usually
limited to 15% and can therefore be tolerated. Sea water reduces the initial
setting time of cement but do not effect final setting time.

Chloride:
Water containing large amount of chlorides tends to cause persistent
dampness and surface efflorescence. The presence of chlorides in concrete
containing embedded steel can lead to its corrosion.

Moisture Content of Aggregate:

Aggregate usually contains some surface moisture. Coarse aggregate rarely
contains more than 1% of surface moisture but fine aggregate can contain in
excess of 10%. This water can represent a substantial proportion of the total
mixing water indicating a significant importance in the quality of the water
that contributes surface moisture in aggregate.