CEMENT

Cement is a cementing or binding material used in engineering constructions. It is manufactured from

calcareous substances (compounds of calcium and magnesium).
 Cement differs from lime in many respects. Cement is very useful and superior to lime under the
following conditions and requirements.
 For the construction of structures in wet places and under water.
 Where great strength and durability of structures are required
 Where mortar or plaster has to set quickly and attain its strength.
 Where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of structures against the
destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
 For water tightness of structures.
 For decorative ornamental and pointing works.

There are two classes of cements

Natural Cement
 This is manufactured by burning and crushing to powder natural stones containing 25 to 40
percent clay, the remainder being the carbonate of lime, sometimes mixed with the carbonate of
magnesia.
 It is brown in colour and sets very quickly when mixed with water.
 It is not as strong as the artificial cement.
 The best variety of natural cement is known as 'Roman cement' in England.
 Roman cement is not used in Bangladesh.
Artificial Cement
 The best variety of artificial cement is known as ordinary Portland due to its similarity in colour
and quality to Portland stone, which was first found and quarried in Dorset in Europe.
 This is also known as ‘Normal Setting Cement’.
 In most of the engineering works Portland cement is used.

Composition of Portland cement

Raw materials used for manufacturing of Portland cement are:
(i) Calcareous materials which are the compounds of calcium and magnesium.
(ii) Argillaceous materials which are mainly silica, alumina, and oxides of iron.

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  Limestone is the common calcareous material and clay and shale are the common argillaceous
materials
 Constituents of Portland cement are mainly two types (a) Mineral constituents and (b) Acid and
Alkalineconstituents.

Table 5.1 Mineral Constituents of Portland cement

Sl No. Constituents Range of percentage composition
1 Tricalcium silicate (3CaO, SiO2) 45-55
2 Dicalcium silicate (2CaO, SiO2) 20-30
3 Tricalcium Aluminate (3CaO, Al2O3) 9-13
4 Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (4CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3) 8-20
5 Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) 2-6
6 Other compounds -- 2-8

Table 5.2 Acid and Alkaline Constituents

Sl No. Constituents Range of percentage composition
1 Calcium Oxide (CaO) 60-67
2 Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.1-4
3 Silica (SiO2) 17-25
4 Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8
5 Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6
6 Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 1-3
7 Potassium Oxide (K₂O) 0.3-1
8 Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 0.3-1
9 Alkalies -- 0.4-1.3
11 Loss on ignition -- 1.8-2
10 Insoluble residue -- 0.3-0.5

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  The insoluble residue, determined by treating it with hydrochloric acid, is a measure of
adulteration of cement, largely arising from impurities in gypsum (calcium sulphate).
 The insoluble residue should not exceed 1.5 percent of the weight of cement.
 The loss of ignition shows the extent of carbonation and hydration-free lime and free magnesia
due to the exposure of cement to the atmosphere.
 The maximum permissible loss on ignition (at 1000 OC) is 3 percent.

Functions of Various Ingredients of Cement

Lime (Calcium Oxide, CaO)
 Lime plays a very important role in the quality of cement because it forms about 63 percent of
cement.
 To form the required silicates and aluminates of calcium, a sufficient quantity of lime must be
present.
 A deficiency in lime reduces the strength of cement and causes it to setquickly.
 On the other hand, an excess will make cement unsound and cause it to expand and disintegrate.
Silica (SiO2)
 Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium silicate.
 Silica imparts strength to cement and usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.
Alumina (Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3)
 It imparts quick-setting property to cement.
 The clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of alumina.
 However, an excess of alumina weakens the cement.
Magnesia (Magnesium Oxide, MgO)
 Magnesia should not be present in more than 2 percent in cement.
 An excess is harmful and will reduce the strength of the cement.
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
 It imparts colour to cement.
 It acts as a flux.
 At a very high temperature, it enters into a chemical reaction with calcium and aluminum to form
tricalcium aluminoferrite.
 This new compound imparts hardness and strength to cement.
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
 This is present in cement in the form of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).

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  It shows down or retards the setting action of cement.
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)
 It should not be present more than 2 percent in cement.
 An excess causes cement to become unsound.
Alkalies
 These should not be present more than 1 percent in cement, because excess alkaline matter
causes efflorescence.

Manufacture of Cement
There are generally two processes adopted for manufacturing cement in Bangladesh namely, (1) Wet
process and (2) Dry process.
Wet process: The manufacture of cement by this process is divided into three stages:
(i) Preparation of cement slurry;
(ii) To obtain cement clinkers; and
(iii) To prepare cement

 In the first stage, the raw materials (calcareous materials, limestone, kankar, chalk, etc., and
argillaceous materials containing the requisite amount of silica, alumina, magnesia, and oxides of
iron) are mixed. Generally, 3 volumes of calcareous materials are mixed with 1 volume of
argillaceous materials. After mixing the materials are crushed in a crushing machine.

 The crushed materials are put into a wash wheel where they are finely grounded with the
addition of the requisite quantity of water. The quantity of water used in the wet process is
around about 45 percent. The grinding of the materials in the wash mill should be such that about
80 to 85 percent should pass through the sieve No. 200. The mixture now exists in a
completely homogeneous condition of suspension in water. The intimate mixture is termed a
slurry. This slurry is sufficiently liquid to pass through pipes and to admit of being handled by
pumps. The slurry is then pumped into correcting silos where it is corrected for its composition.

 In the second stage, the slurry is fed into a rotary kiln (Fig 5.1) at the top. A rotary kiln is a long
inclined steel cylinder lined with refractories. It is inclined about ½˝ to a foot and is about 8 to
12 feet in diameter and 200 to 400 feet in length. The fuel to be used for the purpose may be
coal, oil, or gas. If coal is to be used, it should be in thoroughly grounded form. The coal dust is
blown in the rotary kiln under pressure from the lower end together with a sufficient amount of
air to be utilized during the progress of combustion.

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 In the first few feet length of the kiln, a system of thick iron hanging chains is provided. The
slurry dries in the form of flakes and drops down at the bottom of the kiln. This section of the kiln
is termed a drying zone and has a temperature of about 400 to 600 0F to remove water from the
slurry.

Fig. 5.1 Rotary kiln

 The next section, termed as calcination zone, takes place at a temperature range of 1200 to
16000F, and the entire moisture from the flakes is removed. The flakes gradually slide down
to the third and last section, termed as clinkering zone.

 In the clinkering zone, the temperature ranges from 1600 to 3000 oF. In this zone, the calcareous
and argillaceous materials enter into chemical reactions to form the cement compounds of
silicates, aluminates, and ferrites. These compounds come out as vitrified glassy nodules of
varying sizes from ⅜ to ¼˝ downwards. These are termed as clinkers. The hot clinkers have to
be cooled and stored before grinding them into cement. Cooling cylinders are mounted on the
lower end of the rotary kiln into which the hot clinkers fall and are cooled. The cooled clinkers
drop down from the lower end of the cooling cylinders and collect into a pit from which they are
conveyed through a belt conveyor to the clinkerstorage compartment.

 In the third and last stage, the clinkers are grounded to fine powders in grinding machines like
ball mills, tube mills, roll, ring mills, etc. adding 2.5 to 3 percent of gypsum (calcium sulphate)
to improve the quality of cement. It is then stored and packed in water proof bags for supply to
the markets.

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Dry Process: In this process, the calculated proportion of both calcareous and argillaceous materials are
grounded and mixed in the dry state. The finely ground mixture is then fed into the rotary kiln to
prepare cement clinker, as in the wet process. In manufacturing Portland cement, the wet process is
commonly employed. A typical flow diagram based on the wet process of manufacturing cement is
shown in Fig. 5.2.

Calcareous Argillaceous
Materials Materials

Grinding Grinding

Mixing

Wet Grinding Water

Slurry

Rotary Kiln Fuel (Coal Dust)

Clinker

Cooler

Clinker Storage

Grinding Gypsum

Cement

Fig. 5.2 Flow Diagram of Wet Process

Storing of cement: Cement should be stored in a dry place and on a raised platform and should be
protected against wind and rain. Because cement has a better affinity for water and will readily absorb
moisture from the atmosphere or damp contact surfaces. As far as possible, long periods of storage
should be avoided because long storage reduces the strength of cement.

Types of Portland Cement: To facilitate discussion, a list of varieties of Portland cement, together with
American description (ASTM) where available, is given in the following Table 5.3

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 Table 5.3 Main Types of Portland Cement

Sl. No. English Description American (ASTM) Description

1. Ordinary Portland Type I
2. Modified Port1and Type II
a) Air Entraining Portland
b) Expanding Portland
3. Rapid Hardening Portland Type III
4. Quick Setting Portland --
5. Low Heat Portland Type IV
6. Sulphate Resisting Portland Type V
7. Blast Furnace Type IS
8. Pozzolana Portland Type IP
9. White Portland --

Properties of Cement: The most important properties of cement are: (i) Hydration (ii) Setting (iii)
Fineness (iv) Soundness and (v) Strength.

Hydration of Cement: The term “hydration” is applied to all reactions of cement to water. All the
cement constituent compounds are in a hydrous (dry) state. As soon as water is added to Portland
cement, chemical reactions start simultaneously between them. The different constituent compounds
have different rates of hydration. Tricalcium aluminates (C3A) and tetra-calcium alumino ferrite (C4AF)
react instantaneously with water and are the first to hydrate. Tricalcium silicate (C3S), the most
important constituent compound, is next to hydrate and within a week a substantial part of it reacts with
water. It is mainly responsible for imparting strength to cement in the early days. Dicalcium silicate
(C2S) isthe slowest constituent compound to hydrate and the process is continuous for several days. This
constituent compound is responsible for the progressive strength of cement.
The progress of hydration of cement can be determined by different means, such as the measurement of:
(a) the amount of Ca(OH)2 in the paste; (b) the heat evolved by hydration; (c) the specific gravity of the
paste; (d) the amount of chemically combined water; (e) the amount of un-hydrated cement present; (f)
also indirectly from the strength of the hydrated paste.

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Setting of Cement: The term "setting" refers to change of cement paste from a fluid to a rigid state and it
is described by "initial setting" and "final setting".
 The time at which the cement paste loses its plasticity is termed initial setting time.
 The time at which the cement paste becomes a hard mass is known as final setting time.
 The setting of cement paste decreases with a rise in temperature.

Fineness of Cement: The rate of hydration depends on the fineness of the cement particles, and for a
rapid development of strength high fineness is necessary.
 Finer cement leads to stronger reaction and hence greater strength.
 An increase in fineness of cement improves the workability of a cement concrete mix.
Soundness of cement
 If the raw materials fed into the kiln contain more lime in a free condition.
 The free lime will hydrate very slowly and the mortar and concrete prepared with such cement is
therefore liable to expand and crack after a few months or a year.
 Cements which exhibit this expansion are known as unsound.
Strength of Cement: The strength of mortar or concrete depends on the cohesion of the cement paste to
the aggregate particles and lastly on the strength of aggregates itself.
 There are several forms of strength: (a) Tensile strength and (b) Compressive strength.
 Generally, compressive strength is used in Bangladesh because cement is very weak in tension but
very strong compression.

Testing of cement: The following standard tests are conducted for cement:
Test for Fineness
 Fineness is a vital property of cement and has to be carefully controlled.
 The fraction of cement retained on No. 170 B.S. sieve is limited to 10 percent by weight for
ordinary and 5 percent for rapid hardening Portland cement.

Chemical Composition Test: Both for ordinary and rapid hardening Portland cements, the chemical
composition is the same on chemical analysis and should give the following results
(a) Net proportion of lime to silica, alumina and iron oxides should be {CaO/[2.8(SiO2) +
1.2(Al2O3) + 0.065(Fe2O2)]} in between 1.02 and 0.66.
(b) Magnesia should not exceed 2 percent by weight.
(c) Insoluble residues should not exceed 0.5 percent by weight.
(d) Total sulphur content as sulphur trioxide should not exceed 2 percent by weight.

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Test for Setting Time (initial and final): For the determination of the initial and final setting times, neat
cement paste of a standard consistency has to be used.
 The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus (Fig 5.3) using a 10 mm diameter plunger
fitted into the needle holder.
 A trial paste of cement and water is mixed and placed in the cylindrical mould (80 mm diameter
and 40 mm deep) of the Vicat apparatus.
 The plunger is then brought into contact with the top surface of the paste and released.
 Under the action of its weight the plunger will penetrate into the paste.
 The depth of penetration of the plunger is observed on the vertical scale.
 This is considered to be the standard when the plunger penetrates the paste to a depth of 33 to 35
mm from top of the mould.
 The cement pastes which allow the above penetration of the plunger is termed as standard
cement paste or cement paste of normal (standard) consistency.

Fig. 5.3 Vicat Apparatus

Initial Setting Time: The setting times (initial and final) of standard cement pastes are determined by the
Vicat apparatus.
 For the determination of the initial setting time, a round or square needle with a cross sectional
area of 1 sq. mm is used.
 This needle, acting under a prescribed weight is used to penetrate a paste of standard consistency
placed in the Vicat mould.
 When the paste stiffens sufficiently for the needle to penetrate the paste to a depth of 33 to 35 mm
from top of the mould, initial setting is said to have taken place.
 Initial setting is expressed as the time elapsed since the mixing water added to the cement.
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  Following are the standards of the initial setting time (British standards)
 Ordinary and Rapid Hardening Portland Cement Not less than 45 minutes
 Low Heat Portland Cement - Not less than 60 minutes
 Aluminous Cement-Not less than 2 hours

Final Setting Time: Final setting is determined by 1 mm squire needle fitted with a metal attachment
hollowed out so as to leave a circular cutting edge 5 mm in diameter.
 The final setting is said to have taken place when the needle, gently lowered to the surface of the
paste makes an impression on it but the circular cutting edge fails to do so.
 This final setting time is reckoned from the moment when mixing water was added to the
cement.
 Following are the standards of the final setting time (British standards)
 Ordinary. Rapid hardening and Low Heat Portland Cement - Not more than 10 hours
 Aluminous Cement - Not more than 2 hours after the initial setting.

Test for Strength: For carrying out both the tensile and compressive strengths for cement briquettes and
cubes (Fig 5.4) of specific shapes are made of standard mortar of cement sand and water.
 The sand used for making mortar should be pure natural silica and should be well graded.
 The ratio of cement to sand for making standard mortar is taken as 1:3.
 Clean water, fit for drinking, should be used for making standard mortar.

Fig 5.4(a) Briquette Fig 5.4(b) Cube

Test of Tensile Strength

 The briquettes are molded with standard mortar and cured for 24 hours.
 The briquettes are de-molded after 24 hours and further cured for 3 and 7 days and tested in direct
tension.
 The following should be the results (average of three briquettes) for tensile strength of different
varieties of Portland cement.
 Ordinary Portland Cement-Not less than 300 psi after 3 days and not less than 375 psi after 7
days.
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  Rapid Hardening Portland Cement-Not less than 300 psi after 24 hours and not less than 450 psi
after 3 days

Test for Compressive Strength

 The Cubes are molded with standard mortar and cured for 24 hours.
 The cubes are de-molded after 24 hours and cured further for 3 and 7 days.
 After curing, they are tested under direct compression.
 The average strength of three cubes should not be less than the following values:
 Ordinary Portland Cement - Not less than 2,200 psi after 3 days and not less than 3,400 psi after 7
days.
 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement - Not less than 3,000 psi after 3 days and not less than 4,000
psi after 7 days.

Questions
1. What is cement? Compare the suitability of cement over lime when used in engineering construction.
2. What do you mean by Portland cement? Give both chemical and mineral constituents of ordinary
Portland cement, and discuss briefly the function of each in cement.
3. What are the different methods of manufacturing ordinary Portland cement? Draw a neat diagram of a
rotary kiln and explain the different steps in the wet process of manufacturing Portland cement with a
neat flow diagram
4. Name the different standard tests that are carried out on ordinary Portland cement and enumerate their
purposes.
5. Give the specifications of ordinary Portland cement to the following:
(a) Setting times, (b) Fineness, and (c) Strengths.
6. Write short notes on:
(a) Hydration, (b) Natural Cement, (c) Rapid Hardening Portland Cement, (d) Pozzolana, and
(e) Colored Cement.

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