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Selection of material
 Selection of material for a machine part or a
structural member
Design of Machine Elements I  One of the most important decisions
Usually done before sizing (dimensions of the part)

١ ‫طراحي اجزاي ماشين‬



Other factors
 Parts may be designed besides stress and
Materials  to fill up space
strain may govern
the design of parts!
 for aesthetic qualities
 to resist corrosion
‫روح اله سرفراز‬  ...
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Material Strength and Stiffness Material Strength and Stiffness

 Standard tensile test to obtain  Standard tensile test
 material characteristics  Stress-strain diagram
used in design
 strengths
Typical stress-strain diagrams Typical stress-strain diagrams
for ductile materials for brittle materials

gauge lengths ASTM standards E8

Stress:

Original area of the specimen:

Normal strain:

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Stress-strain diagrams for ductile materials Stress-strain diagrams for ductile materials
 Proportional limit (point 𝑝𝑙)  Elastic limit (point 𝑒𝑙)
 Deviation from a straight line.  Plastic deformation beyond this point
 No permanent set after unload  Permanent deformation after unload
 The uniaxial stress-strain relation: Hooke’s law

Slope of the linear part:

Young’s modulus or the
modulus of elasticity

E : stiffness of a material
Steel ≈ 207 GPa
Stainless steel ≈ 190 GPa

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Stress-strain diagrams for ductile materials Stress-strain diagrams for ductile materials
 Yield point  Ultimate/tensile strength, 𝑆𝑢 / 𝑆𝑢𝑡
 Rapid increase of strain without a corresponding increase in stress  The maximum stress reached on the stress-strain diagram
 May not be an obvious point in all materials: especially for brittle materials
 Yield strength 𝑆𝑦 : defined by an offset method
Fracture at point 𝑓 Brittle materials:
points u and f are identical in
some of the cast irons and high
strength steels,

Usually 0.2 percent of the original gauge length (𝜀= 0.002)

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Engineering vs. True stress-strain diagram Engineering vs. True stress-strain diagram
 Engineering stress-strain diagram  True stress-strain
 Stress and strain calculation diagram
based on the original area  True / logarithmic strain
 Reality: area reduces as the load  Sum of the incremental
is applied elongations divided by
 To obtain the true stress the current gauge length
 Simultaneous measurement of
load and the cross-sectional area
during the test.

Typically, the specimen begins to “neck” at a

location of weakness beyond point 𝑢

The true stress is much higher than the engineering

stress at the necked section!

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Engineering vs. True stress-strain diagram Compression test

 True stress-strain diagram  More difficult to conduct

For small strains (less than about 2)  Buckling

 Geometry: Differs from the geometry of
tension tests
No difference between the two curves.
 Most ductile materials
For any situation that is working below  Compressive strengths ≈ Tensile strengths.
the yield point (very often a design
constraint)  do not mention terms
“engineering” or “true.”
 When substantial differences occur (e.g.
cast irons)
The true stress continually increases all the way to fracture.
 Both strengths stated; 𝑆𝑢𝑡, 𝑆𝑢𝑐 (as a positive
quantity)
The true fracture stress 𝜎 is greater than the true ultimate stress 𝜎 .

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Torsional strengths Torsional strengths

 Twisting solid circular bars  Maximum shear stress
 Torque-twist diagram

G: Shear modulus / modulus of rigidity

 Maximum shear stress (in terms

of applied torque T):

 Shear stresses
 Linear with respect to radial location
 zero at the center, maximum at the outer radius
Polar second moment of area of the cross section:

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Energy-absorbing characteristics Energy-absorbing characteristics

 Resilience:  Toughness
 The capacity of a material to absorb energy strain at the yield point  The capacity of a material to absorb energy strain at the
within its elastic range without fracture fracture point

 Modulus of resilience 𝑢𝑅
 The energy absorbed per unit volume without  The modulus of toughness 𝑢𝑇
permanent deformation  The energy absorbed per unit volume
without fracture:
 If the stress-strain is linear to the yield point;

Even though the brittle metal has

higher yield and tensile strengths, it has
with the same yield strength, the less stiff a lower toughness than the ductile one!
material will have a greater resilience.

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Hardness Hardness
Hardness:  Rockwell hardness

 ASTM standard hardness method E–18
 The resistance of a material to  The Rockwell B scale:

penetration by a pointed tool  Designated RB, a 100-kg load and a 1/16-in-diameter ball
 The Rockwell C scale:
 Many hardness-measuring  Designated RC, a diamond cone, and a load of 150 kg
systems:
 Rockwell hardness

 Brinell hardness

 ...

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Hardness Hardness
 Brinell hardness  Example
 A ball indenter

 Hardness number HB:

 Applied load divided by the spherical surface area of the

indentation.
 Both methods are nondestructive in most cases. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) numbering system for gray
 Directly related to the ultimate strength of the material cast iron is such that the numbers correspond
to the minimum tensile strength in kpsi. Thus
an ASTM No. 20 cast iron has a minimum
Rough approx. for steels tensile strength of 20 kpsi.

Rough approx. for cast iron

A wide scatter in the data  but a good rough approximation !

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Impact Properties Impact Properties

 Impact load  Effect of temperature on impact values
 The time that an external force applied to a structure is less than one-third
 A ductile-brittle transition (Not in all materials)
of its lowest natural period of vibration

 Determination of brittleness and impact strength

 Charpy
 Izod
Impact data obtained from
these tests are as dependent
on the notch geometry as
they are on the strain rate.

Impact value: May be better to use the concepts of fracture toughness, and
The energy absorbed by the specimen fracture mechanics to assess the possibility of cracking or fracture!

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Temperature Effects Numbering Systems

 Strength and ductility, or brittleness, are properties affected  Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
by the temperature of the operating environment  the first recognized the need
 The UNS uses a letter prefix to designate the material
 G : carbon and alloy steels
 First 2 numbers: indicate the composition, excluding the carbon content.
 The second number pair refers to the approximate carbon content.

 A : aluminum alloys
A plot of the results of 145  First number : processing, e.g. A0 : casting alloy
 Second number: the main alloy group
tests of 21 carbon and alloy
 ...
steels showing the effect of
operating temperature on the
yield strength Sy and the
ultimate strength Sut.

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Materials Selection Materials Selection

 The actual selection of a material for a particular design application:  One basic technique
 Based on previous applications  List all the important material properties associated with the design; strength, …
 1020 steel : always a good candidate because of its many positive  For each property, list all available materials and rank them in order beginning
with the best material
attributes
 The materials in the reduced lists can be graded within the list and then weighted
 Evaluation of the many material physical, economical, and processing according to the importance of each property
parameters

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Materials Selection Materials Selection Charts

Desired to minimize
 Materials selection charts (developed by M. F. Ashby)  Specific modulus / stiffness : 𝐸/𝜌 weight where the
primary design
 implemented in a software package called Granta EduPack
limitation is
deflection, stiffness,
or natural frequency.
Considering material
stiffness properties

Some woods
and aluminum
alloys have
about the same
specific modulus
as steels!!!

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Materials Selection Charts Materials Selection Charts

 The performance metric 𝑃 of a structural element depends on  Design a light, stiff, end-loaded cantilever beam with a
1. the functional requirements circular cross section
2. the geometry  Minimize mass (m) of the beam
3. the material properties of the structure  Stiffness of the beam 𝑘 = 𝐹/𝛿

The end deflection:

If the function is separable

Material efficiency
coefficient
Maximizing or minimizing 𝑓 (𝑀), called the material efficiency coefficient.

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Materials Selection Charts Materials Selection Charts

 Design a light, stiff, end-loaded cantilever beam with a  Design a light, stiff, end-loaded cantilever beam with a
circular cross section
Good candidates:
circular cross section
 Minimize
certain mass
woods, (m) of the beam  Minimize mass (m) of the beam
composites, and
ceramics.

Maximize Material
index

Young’s modulus
greater than
50 GPa.

eliminates
woods as a
possible material.

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Materials Selection Charts

Desired to minimize
 Specific strength : 𝑆/𝜌 weight where the
primary design
limitation is strength.

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