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Properties of Material

Chapter 3 discusses the properties of materials, categorizing them into chemical, physical, mechanical, and processing properties, and emphasizes the importance of material selection based on function, strength, appearance, cost, and safety. It covers various testing methods for assessing material properties, including tensile, compression, shear, fatigue, and hardness tests, along with the significance of stress-strain relationships and safety factors in design. The chapter highlights the need for designers to consider material performance under load to prevent failures in products.

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Jit Chidi
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13 views23 pages

Properties of Material

Chapter 3 discusses the properties of materials, categorizing them into chemical, physical, mechanical, and processing properties, and emphasizes the importance of material selection based on function, strength, appearance, cost, and safety. It covers various testing methods for assessing material properties, including tensile, compression, shear, fatigue, and hardness tests, along with the significance of stress-strain relationships and safety factors in design. The chapter highlights the need for designers to consider material performance under load to prevent failures in products.

Uploaded by

Jit Chidi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 3

Properties Of Materials
Four classes of material properties:
Chemical - reaction w/other materials especially corrosion

Physical – dependant on atomic structure


•Density, crystalline structure, specific heat, cohesive strength, melting
point

Mechanical – primary importance in design consideration for determining sizes


& shapes for carrying loads.
•Hardness, strength, ductility, toughness etc.

Processing – important for manufacturing


•Castability, weldability, machinability, bending etc.
Choice of materials is a compromise between:

•Function
•Strength
•Physical appearance
•Cost – material, processing, inspection
•Safety
Loading systems and material failure:

World business is motivated by profit - offering quality products is


critical to the survival of many businesses as society has low
tolerance to product failures.

Designers must consider material stress, strength, and loading.


Material stress calculations

Stress – internal forces acting on imaginary planes cutting the body being
loaded. Stress can be calculated by dividing the total force by the area on which
it acts.

Normal stresses – tension and compression where: S = stress


P = force
x-x = A (area)
S = P/A
Shear stress calculations: where: S = stress
P = force
z-z = A (area)

Bending - convex side is in tension and the concave side is in compression


S = Mc/I
Testing
Test Case: A grinding wheel must be able to withstand rotational speeds of
3500 rpm

•Direct test – the actual product or material is tested for specific


properties or information.
- rotate each grinding wheel to verify strength

•Indirect test – test for strength by means other than rotation,


requires correlation to specific properties
- rap the grinding wheels to create a certain tone
(acceptance criteria)

•Destructive – Destroy the grinding wheel - usually a direct test


- Increase rotational speed to destruction

•Nondestructive – indirect test that requires correlation to


specific properties
– also requires expert evaluation or
interpretation of results.
Tension testing (tensile testing) - destructive test which can
determine material properties i.e. strength, ductility, resilience and
toughness.

- Radii in the test specimen to reduce stress risers


- Data is plotted on a stress-strain diagram
- Each type of material has a unique curve or shape on the
stress-strain diagram
Stress-Strain diagram (engineers diagram) for steel

A-B elastic range


B - elastic limit
C - yield point
D – work hardening
E – Ultimate strength
F – Breaking/rupturing strength
Yield Strength vs Yield
Point

Many materials do not have a well


defined yield point

An artificial point called “yield


strength” may be calculated.

Yield strength is the amount of stress


required to produce a predetermined
amount of strain - USUALLY .002
inch or .2% OFFSET
Modulus of elasticity (E)

The ratio of unit stress to unit strain (deformation) - the slope of the
curve within the elastic limit

The relative stiffness or rigidity of materials can be obtained by


comparing their moduli.
E= stress/strain (within the elastic limit)

Ductility:
Tensile testing provides two measures of ductility

Percent elongation = (Lf – Lo) / Lo * 100


Lo = initial length
Lf = final length

Physical measurement – comparing the original area to the smallest area


of the neck at the point of rupture
True stress - true strain diagram
Data accounts for cross-sectional area

The greatest difference


is in the plastic flow
region
Compression testing:
•Similar set-up as tensile testing: test wood, fiberglass, timber, concrete
•Cast iron has tensile strength one half of its compressive strength

Transverse rupture testing:


•For test brittle materials (low
ductility) - a substitution for
tensile testing
•Tensile testing relies on
localized plastic flow to
correct for equipment/set-up
anomalies
•Materials tested include:
ceramics/glass/reinforced
concrete etc.
Shear test:
•Shear strength
test simulates
conditions of
actual loading
of bolts and
rivets
•Load is
applied to
cross sectional
area
Fatigue test - Materials subjected to stress cycles
• Fatigue strength – stress that can be applied for arbitrary number for
cycles without failure.
•Endurance limit – highest stress that can be endured with infinite
cycles without failure

•90% of failures of equipment with moving parts include fatigue in some form

Typical S-N curve (Stress and Number of cycles)


Creep test:
-Testing of materials for deformation within the elastic limit over long periods
of time.
-Apply constant load to a material at a desired temperature and measure
periodically for deformation.
- Creep tests are carried out for long periods of time – at least 1,000 hours

Notched Bar tests:


-Testing a materials ability to withstand sudden stress or impact from
applied loads (toughness)
-A weighted pendulum/cantilever is lifted to a test height and
released. It swings past the specimen – breaking it – and the
remaining energy is calculated by the height of the follow through
swing.
- Charpy, Izod, Tensile impact
Izod test:
•Measures materials ability to
resist rupture via energy
absorption similar to Charpy
test

Charpy test:
•Impact test which uses a
weighted pendulum
•Measures materials ability to
resist rupture via energy
absorption
Tensile impact testing
•Greater similarity between the test and some conditions can be
provided by tensile impact tests
•Specimens are supported so that impact loads may be applied
•Specimens are NOT notched

Bend test:
•Free bend test
- specimen is bent slightly then compression applied until
failure or 180 degree bend is obtained
- the angle of bend at the failure is compared with other
tests.
•Guided bend test
- multiple radius guided bends are often used to determine
the smallest radius about which a specimen will bend
180 degrees without fracture – continue to decrease the
radius
Hardness testing:
•Indirect test that measures the ability of material to resist near surface
penetration.
•Most frequently used test for determining material properties i.e.
strength, wear resistance and work-hardening qualities.
•Separate raw materials of different composition

Mohs test:
•Scale of ten minerals arranged in order of increasing hardness –
from #1 talc to #10 diamond
•If a material can be scratched by #7 but not scratched #6 by then it
has a hardness of #6
•Used mainly in the field of mineralogy.

File test:
•A file is used to produce metal shavings from a specimen - hardness
is determined by comparing the specimen filings with filings from
standard test blocks
•Not very accurate.
Brinell test:
•Typical test: hardened steel 10mm dia ball impressed under a load of 3000kg on material for 10
seconds and the indentation is measured – from the ratio of the force imposed on the indenter to
the size of the impression
•Very consistent, and tensile value can be closely approximated
•Can not be used on very thin materials

Rockwell test:
•Hardness determined by differential depth measurement using a 1/16” steel ball or diamond
penetrator.
•Minor load is applied to reduce effect of dirt scale etc. – then major load is applied.
•A-G Rockwell scales are used
Superficial Rockwell test:

•Hardness determined by differential depth measurement using a precision


diamond penetrator – in the same manner as the Rockwell machines.
•Produces shallow impressions – for thin materials or localized surface
measurement.
•N is the superficial Rockwell scale designation

Vickers test:

•Similar to Brinell except that a four-sided diamond pyramid penetrator is


used.
•Vickers and brinell numbers are almost identical i.e. measurements are
calculated from the ratio of the force imposed on the indenter to the size
of the impression
Microhardness test:

•Used on very small or very thin materials


•Elongated diamond impression is a few thousandths of an inch long.
•Surface must be highly polished to avoid the effects of surface
imperfections.
Safety Factor:
•The ratio between the maximum stress value and working stress value
•Safety factors are used to avoid working too close to maximum values

Calculation:
The working stress of a material with 80,000 psi ultimate tensile
strength is 20,000 psi what is the safety factor in this situation

Safety factor = 80,000/20,000


=4

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