Classification

 Nouns
o Common nouns
o Proper nouns
o Numerals
▪ Ordinal numerals – first, second, third…
▪ Cardinal numerals – one, two, three…
o Pronouns
▪ Possessive pronouns – mine, yours, his, hers, theirs
▪ Personal pronouns – I, me, we, us, you, he/him, she/her, it, they/them
▪ Reflexive pronouns – myself, yourself, himself, herself
▪ Reciprocal pronouns – each other, one another
▪ Demonstrative pronouns – this, that, those
▪ Interrogative and relative pronouns – who, whom, whose, what, which
▪ Indefinite pronouns – every, some, any, no + thing, one, body
 Verbs
o Transitive verbs
o Auxiliary verbs
o Operators – be, have, do, can, will, must, may
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
o Participles
o Connectives
 Prepositions
 Determinatives
o Possessive determinative – my, our, your, his, her
o Definite articles – the, that, this
o Indefinite articles – a, an, some,
o Numerals
 Conjunctions
o Coordinators
o Subordinates
Open and closed word classes
Open word classes – they have more concrete meaning, there is a bigger number of them in a language,
there is a possibility of creating new definitions/words from them
o Nouns
o Verbs
o Adjectives
o Adverbs
Closed word classes – cannot be extended upon easily, even though it’s possible the process is near
impossible
o Prepositions
o Determinatives
o Coordinators
o Subordinators
o Pronounds
Criteria for distinguishing word classes
  Semantic/Notional - definitions are based on their semantic properties of expression i.e. their
meaning rather than on their grammatical form
 Syntactic/Distributional - they reflect the relationships between word classes and functional slots
in a clause
 Morphological - they cover obligatory inflections and optional derivations for each word class
 Phonological
 Other
Word vs phrase
Word – a single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with others (or sometimes alone) to
form a sentence, a singular representative of a word class; it is a head to a phrase
Phrase – a small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit, typically forming a component of a
clause; its head is a word (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition or determinative)
-

Five major patterns of complementations

Pattern Structures Example

Intransitive SP NP Vgr Kim arried.

Linking/copulative S P PCs NP Vgr AdjP/ Kim became ill./

NP Vgr NP Kim became a teacher

Monotransitive S P Od NP Vgr NP Kim saw the accident.

Ditransitive S P Oi Od NP Vgr NP NP Kim told him the truth.

Complex transitive S P Od PCo NP Vgr NP AdjP/ Kim considered him foolish./Kim

NP Vgr NP NP considered him a fool.

Complements vs adjuncts
o Complements - they require a dependent element to 'complete the meaning’; they are sometimes
obligatory, but can be omitted if the verb is “strong”, important or ”telling” enough to stand on its
own; the selection of a complement of a particular type depends on the presence of a verb lexeme of
an appropriate class; the most central complements are NPs or AdjPs
o Adjuncts - can be omitted, they are not lexically controlled in any way, the most central adjuncts are
AdvPs
Objects vs predicative complements
o Objects - a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun that is affected by the action of a verb; it is not
dependent on a plural or singular form of the verb
o Predicative complements - they complete the meaning of a sentence by giving information about a
noun; they follow linking verbs (verbs that do not denote action but connect a noun to information
about it e.g. he feels angry, she seems happy)
Direct vs indirect objects
o Direct object - the result of an action; a subject does something, and the product is the object
itself; it refers to a person or entity that undergoes an action (a notional property); it forms a close
bond with a lexical verb; they are realized as noun phrases; e.g. Marie wrote a poem
o Indirect object - receive or respond to the outcome of an action; it refers to people or entities that
are Goals, Recipients, or Benefactives of an action or event; they occur immediately after the verb,
with which they have a close bond; they are realized as noun phrases; e.g. Marie wrote me an email

Phrasal vs prepositional verbs (incl. tests)

 Definition Preposition Structur Status of PP/NP
choice e

Phrasal verb an idiomatic phrase consisting of there is a need for a [V + Prep] + NP NP is a direct object
a verb and another element, specific preposition e.g. She backed up her
typically either an adverb, as in father
“break down”, or a preposition,
for example “see to”, or a
combination of both, such as
“look down on”

Prepositional an idiomatic expression there is a need for a V + Prep PP is a Cx e.g. She

verb that combines a verb and a specific preposition relied on her father
preposition to make a new verb
with a distinct meaning

TESTS for distinguishing prepositional and phrasal verbs

Type of test Phrasal verb Prepositional verb

Stress pattern She backed UP her father. She reLIED on her father.
(stress on the verb) (stress on the particle)

Preposition/particle mobility She backed up her father. She relied on her father.
She backed her father up. She relied her father on. - NOT
(the particle’s mobility proves the POSSIBLE
phrasal verb status) (if the particle is not moveable,
then it is a prepositional verb)

Wh-questions She backed up her father. She relied on her father.

Who(m) did she back up? Who(m) did she rely on?
Up whom did she back? - NOT POSSIBLE On whom did she rely?

Relative clauses She backed up her father. She relied on her father.
Her father, who(m) she backed up. Her father, who(m) she relied on.
Her father, up who(m) she backed. - NOT Her father, on whom she relied.
POSSIBLE

Cleft construction She backed up her father. She relied on her father.
It is her father that she backed up. It is her father that she relied on.
It is up her father that she backed - NOT It is on her father that she relied.
POSSIBLE

Relative clauses – they usually modify a noun or a noun phrase and are introduced by a relative pronoun,
relative verb or zero relative; it follows the noun or noun phrase it modifies
Cleft construction – a construction in which some element in a sentence is moved from its normal position
into a separate clause to give it greater emphasis
Verbal categories in English grammar encompass various properties of verbs that help to convey different
aspects of meaning. These include agreement categories, tense, aspect, mood, and modality.

Agreement categories
Categories Semantic Examples
contrasts
Agreement Person 1st, 2nd, 3rd I/you/we/they walk vs. She/he/it walks
categories Number sg., pl. She/he/it walks vs. They walk

Gender masculine, No contrast in English

feminine, In Polish: Poszedł vs. Poszła vs. Poszło
neuter

The category of tense

Present tense Past tense
The occurrence of a full instantiation of the The occurrence of a full instantiation of the
profiled process (=the process designated by profiled process (=the process designated by
the verb) coincides with the time of the verb) is prior to the time of speaking.
speaking.

 The meaning of the Present Tense

Present tense can be used in such ways:
o Habitual – describing habits
o Generic – describing facts, usual events
o A stage direction
o An event scheduled for the future
o Historical present – using present time to describe events in the past
o Part of a play-by-play account
o A hypothetical occurrence
Present time situations
The primary use of the present tense is to locate the situation in present time - where 'situation' is to
be understood as a general term covering states, actions, processes or whatever is described in the clause,
and present time is the time of the utterance.
Situations can be classified as either static (states of affairs, relations, etc.) or dynamic (actions,
processes, events, etc.).
o Static situations will be understood to extend beyond the moment of utterance: Kim's living
in Berlin, for example, has much greater duration than an utterance of “He’s kicking the ball”.
o Dynamic situations are by contrast understood to be effectively simultaneous with the
utterance: “He’s kicking the ball”, for example, might be used in a running commentary on a
football match.
The use of the present tense for dynamic situations is fairly restricted: it is found mainly in running
commentaries, demonstrations (e.g. / add a pinch of salt in a cookery demonstration) and for certain kinds
of act performed precisely by virtue of uttering a sentence that describes the act (I promise to be back before
six).
Present time schedules of future situations
“The match starts tomorrow”
Here we have dynamic situations which are in future time, not present time. There is nevertheless a
present time element in the meaning, in that we are concerned with what is presently arranged or
'scheduled'.
Futurity in subordinate clauses
“[I want to finish before] John gets up”
In certain types of subordinate clause we find a present tense verb for a future situation. This use of the
present tense occurs most often after such temporal expressions as after, before, until, and conditional
expressions like //, unless, provided. It is thus a non-kernel use: the temporal interpretation of John gets up
in the example is different from the one it has when it stands alone as a sentence. These temporal and
conditional prepositions do not always induce a future interpretation: it depends on the larger context;
compare the example, for instance, with / always leave before John gets up.
 The meaning of the Past Tense
Past tense is deictic, in that what “past” means depends on the time when the utterance was
spoken, which depends on the specific context of the situation. Holy fucking shit, why is this so
overcomplicated in the notes for no fucking reason?
Past tense is not deictic when it’s used in a narrative (historical narratives, fictional narratives)
because we know the exact time when they happened, so the “when” it happened doesn’t depend on the
context of when it was said anymore.
Past time situations
“Kim lived in Berlin”
The past tense in its basic use encodes that a situation obtained at some point in the past, relative to the
moment of utterance.
Past time schedule of future situations.
This use of the past tense is vastly less frequent than the corresponding use of the present tense.
Factual remoteness.
The factual remoteness meaning of the past tense is not restricted to unreal conditional constructions. It is
also found in subordinate clauses after wish or it be time (I wish/It is time they were here). In main clauses
it occurs only with modal operators. The difference between “He'll be about seventy now” and “He'd be
about seventy now”, for example, as responses to “How old do you think he is?”, is that the latter is less
assured, more 'hedged', than the former.
Backshifting
Backshifting represents a non-kernel use of the past tense.
 Ways of expressing the future
o Will
o Shall
o To be going to
o Present Tense (+ simple Aspect)
o Present Tense + Progressive Aspect
o Verbs of planning and intention
o To look forward to do something, to be about to do something
o Modal Auxiliaries
 Tense as a deictic category: back-shift in reporting
Deixis refers to words and phrases, such as pronouns and temporal expressions, that cannot be fully
understood without additional contextual information. In the case of tense, deixis relates to how the verb
form changes based on the speaker's perspective in time. This concept is crucial in understanding how tense
operates in different contexts, especially in reported speech.
Tense in English is inherently deictic because it relates events to the time of speaking or writing. For
example, when you say, "I am eating," you are using the present continuous tense to indicate that the action
is happening now, at the time of speaking. If you say, "I was eating," you shift the action to the past, relative
to the current moment.
Back-shift refers to the change of tense in reported speech to reflect the time of the original statement
from the perspective of the reporting moment. This shift typically involves moving the tense of the original
speech back one step into the past. Back-shifting is not merely a grammatical rule; it reflects the speaker's
perspective and the temporal relationship between the original statement and the reporting moment.
Understanding and correctly applying back-shift helps in maintaining the temporal coherence and clarity of
reported speech.
There is direct and indirect reported speech. Direct reported speech would look like “Ed said: “Jill has
three children””. Indirect reported speech would look like this:
o Ed said that Jill had three children. (backshifted)
o Ed said that Jill has three children. (non-backshifted)
Backshifted reported speech is more neutral and faithful than the non-backshifted one. What Ed said
was relevant at the time when HE said it, that’s why we use past tense.

The category of aspect

 Aspectual contrasts in English
Noun/ Verb Count/ Perfective Mass/ Imperfective

Semantic Bounded Unbounded

characterisation Replicable Non-replicable
Non-homogeneous Homogeneous
Non-contractible Contractible

Processes A perfective process profiles An imperfective process describes the extension

some kind of change through through time of a stable situation.
time, prototypically a physical
action involving the transmission
of energy.

Aspect is a property of a verb that expresses how the action/state/event indicated by the verb takes
place over time. In other words, aspect gives us extra information that tells us whether the verb is ongoing,
repeated, completed, or even habitual.
There are two main elements of aspect in the English language called the progressive aspect (a.k.a the
continuous aspect) and the perfective aspect. When neither aspect is present in a sentence we call it the
simple aspect. When we combine both the progressive and perfective we form the perfective progressive
aspect.
Therefore, we classify aspects into four types:
o The simple aspect
The simple aspect simply states that an action or state of being (i.e. the verb) has taken/is taking/will take
place. It can also express a habitual action. In other words, it states a fact.
o The progressive (continuous) aspect
The progressive aspect expresses that the action or state of a verb is ongoing and uncompleted.
o The perfective aspect
The perfective aspect expresses that an action is complete. The action is normally linked to a specific point in
time in the past, present, or future.
o The perfect progressive (continuous) aspect
The perfect progressive aspect expresses an ongoing (progressive) action or state that was/is/will be
completed at a later point in time (perfect).
 The meanings of the progressive aspect
The progressive aspect represents a stative semantic perspective on an otherwise non-stative event. Its
use does not imply that the event per se was unbounded or diffuse, but rather that from the perspective of
the speaker, the event is described in the middle of happening, with its boundaries disregarded and its
temporal span accentuated.
 Progressive aspect offers thus an internal perspective on an event: to watch it unfold rather than view it
holistically as a unitary entity.
When the event is super-compact (=of very short duration), then the progressive aspect assumes an
iterative interpretation (=a progression of repeated acts).
Using progressive aspect with typically imperfective verbs is possible when the situation is conceived as
changing in some way or the period of stability is regarded as a bounded episode rather than something
expected to continue indefinitely. Conversely, any perfective verb may be construed as generic or habitual
and thus rendered imperfective.
In short:
o The progressive aspect is made using be + present participle (ending -ing)
o Progressive aspect implies that the event is taking place, without hard boundaries of when it
began and ended
o It can be used to illustrate some event that is temporary, for ex. “She is living in Berlin”
implies she only lives there for some time
 The meanings of the perfect aspect
The English tenses (present and past) directly situate the profiled process with respect to the time of
the speech event. By contrast, the perfect construction invokes a temporal reference point and indicates that
the process designated by the content verb is prior to that reference point (it signals anteriority) and also
suggests that the process has some repercussions at the temporal reference point (current relevance).
In short:
o Perfect aspect is made with the use of perfect ‘have’
o Perfect aspect establishes a point in time and indicates that the process it’s describing took
place even before that point (that’s called anteriority)
o Perfect aspect implies that the process it’s describing has some repercussions at the point in
time it established beforehand
Mood and modality
 Meanings associated with modality
Modality is an area of meaning that is often defined by example: the term ‘modality’ is a cover term for
a range of semantic notions such as ability, possibility, hypotheticality, obligation and imperative meaning.
This is a serviceable definition for practical purposes.
 Types of modality
Root Modality:
o Deontic
▪ Commitment
▪ Imperativeness, orders
▪ Wishes
▪ Desires
o Inherent
▪ Uses can/will
▪ Ability or requirement of the subject to do something
Epistemic Modality:
o Inferential – Inference about the likelihood of a situation, e.g., "She must be at home" (based
on evidence)
o Non-Inferential – Direct knowledge or certainty, e.g., "It is certainly true." OR not based on
any evidence, it’s simply an assessment of possibilities, less confident, more hypothetical (may,
might, could, will)

 Ways of expressing modality

Modality is expressed by a variety of linguistic devices, lexical, grammatical and prosodic. There are a
considerable number of lexical items with modal meanings. They include most of the operators: may, must,
can, will, shall, should, ought, need, and also be and have in some of their uses, as in You are to be back by six,
If they were to try again [they would be in trouble], You'll have to work harder. There are also non-operator
catenatives with modal uses: allow, permit, oblige, etc. (cf. You aren't allowed to do that) - and need and have
have modal meanings whether they behave as operators or not. In addition we find modal adjectives, such as
possible, likely, probable, certain, sure, necessary, and modal adverbs, such as perhaps, maybe, possibly and
other derivatives from the adjectives. Turning to grammar, the interrogative and imperative constructions
have modal meanings - assured factual assertions are normally in declarative form. And the use of the past
tense for factual remoteness, as in (5) above, clearly involves modal meaning. Prosodic expression of
modality is illustrated, for example, in rising intonation overlaid on a declarative: with such intonation, He is
ill, say, will be interpreted as a question rather than an assured factual assertion.
In short:
o Use of modal operators
o Conditionals
o Verbs with modal uses: allow, permit, oblige
o Modal adjectives: possibly, likely, probable
o Modal adverbs: maybe, perhaps, possibly
o Interrogative and imperative constructions
o Past tense for factual remoteness
o Rising intonation of a declarative construction = a question

 Mood vs. modality; the English subjunctive

Subjunctive – contrary to present state of affairs, not factual; expresses wishes, weak certainty (past),
weak manipulation. The distinction between indicative and subjunctive may be phrased as word-to-match-
the-world (indicative; in Polish że) vs. world-to-match-the-word (subjunctive; in Polish żeby).
There are:
o Present subjunctive
o Past subjunctive
Factors on which this subtle modal contrast between present and past subjunctives hinges:
o The expected degree of resistance on the part of the implied manipulee;
o The speaker’s uncertainty about the outcome;
o Perhaps the speaker’s anxiety about the outcome.
Verbs, adjectives and nouns which introduce subjunctive:
o Verbs: insist, prefer, request, suggest, recommend, ask;
o Adjectives: necessary, desirable, imperative, vital, essential, important;
o Nouns: decision, requirement, resolution, advice.
Present:
I insist that we reconsider the Council’s decisions.
I Insist that the Council reconsider its decisions.
I insist that the Council’s decision(s) be reconsidered.
Past—were-subjunctive:
If she were/was leaving, you would have heard about it.
Only were is acceptable in as it were ‘so to speak’; were is usual in if I were you.
Negation of the present subjunctive does not require an operator:
I insist that we not reconsider the Council’s decision.
Present subjunctive
o Mandative subjunctive is used in that-clauses after expressions of:
▪ Demand
▪ Necessity
▪ Recommendation
▪ Proposal
▪ Plan
 ▪ Intention
o Formulaic/optative subjunctive is used in certain expressions, such as “Long live the king”,
“God save the queen”, “God bless you”. Even though they grammatically express demand, the
intent isn’t to order God to save the queen – it’s more of a wish.
Subjunctive mood is more typical of American English; in British English putative should is used:
The employees demanded that he resign (USA)/should resign (UK)/resigns.
Past subjunctive is used in hypotheticals. It occurs in:
o Conditional: after if, if only, suppose, whether,
o Concessive: after even though, though,
o Adverbial clauses of purpose: after lest,
o Other: after wish, it’s time, etc.

 Force-dynamic interpretation of English modals may, can, must, have to

Force dynamics explores how different forces interact, such as enabling, preventing, or compelling
actions. In the context of modals, this involves understanding how these verbs interact with the forces that
allow or restrict actions.
May: Permission or possibility, e.g., "You may leave.
Can: Ability or permission, e.g., "She can swim."
Must: Necessity, e.g., "You must study."
Have to: Obligation, e.g., "I have to go."

 Morphosyntactic characteristics of English modal auxiliaries

o takes negation directly;
o takes inversion without do;
o can occur in ‘code’ (So can I.);
o takes emphasis (Ann COULD solve this problem.);
o has no –s for 3rd sg.;
o has no non-finite forms;
o does not co-occur with other modal auxiliaries.

Characteristics (1)-(4) distinguish modal auxiliaries from content verbs (NICE properties); (5)-(7)
from non-modal auxiliaries be, have and do.
Quasi-modals: have to, be going to, be able to, be bound to.
 English root/ epistemic modals and the categories of tense and aspect; morphosyntactic
behaviour of English modals; root vs. Epistemic interpretation
Root modality (much more difficult to characterise): animate subjects, agentive verbs and passive
voice are all linked with Root meaning
Epistemic modality is concerned with the speaker’s assumptions (must, should, ought) or assessment
of possibilities (may, might, could, will) and, in most cases, it indicates the speaker’s confidence (or lack of
confidence) in the truth of the proposition (składnik przedstawieniowy; state of affairs — event, state,
action) expressed.
Grammatical features of Epistemic modality
o Negation affects the proposition and not the modality (apart form suppletive can’t).
o There are no past tense forms (apart form occasional might for may in reported speech).
o The occurrence of HAVE + -EN affects the proposition, not the modality.
o The co-occurrence of the Epistemic modals and certain syntactic forms, such as HAVE + ‑EN, BE
+ ‑ING etc, distinguishes this category of modality from non-Epistemic.
Interaction with Tense and Aspect:
o Root modals generally don't change with tense, e.g., "She must go" vs. "She must have gone."
o Epistemic modals can reflect different times, e.g., "She must be at home" vs. "She must have
been at home."
Root vs. Epistemic Interpretation:
 o Context determines meaning, e.g., "You must leave" (root: obligation) vs. "She must be home"
(epistemic: inference).

Classification of nouns
o Pronouns: I, me, my, mine, myself, you, she, who
o Proper Nouns: Names of specific entities (e.g., London, Shakespeare)
o Common Nouns: Names of general items (e.g., city, writer)
▪ Count Nouns: can be counted (e.g., book, apple).
▪ Mass (Non-count) Nouns: cannot be counted (e.g., water, information).
▪ Concrete Nouns: denote physical entities (e.g., table, cat).
▪ Abstract Nouns: denote abstract concepts (e.g., happiness, beauty).
▪ Collective Nouns: refer to groups (e.g., team, family).
Also:
▪ Animate nouns - Refer to living beings
▪ Inanimate nouns - Refer to non-living entities
Nominal Categories:
 Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter)
 Number (singular, dual, plural)
 Case (nominative, genitive, etc.)
o Saxon Genitive: Typically used for animate possessors (e.g., John's book).
o Of-Genitive: Often used for inanimate possessors or to indicate a whole-part relationship (e.g., the
colour of the car).
 Definiteness
o The Meanings of the Definite and Indefinite Articles in English:
▪ Definite Article ("the"): Used to refer to specific entities known to the speaker and listener
(e.g., the book on the table).
▪ Indefinite Articles ("a" and "an"): Used to refer to non-specific entities (e.g., a book, an
apple).
o Other Definiteness-Triggering Determiners:
▪ Demonstratives: this, that, these, those.
▪ Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
▪ Quantifiers: some, any, all, both, each, every, etc.
▪ PossPs: he old man’s, one girl’s
o Specifiness and Genericness:
▪ Specific: Refer to particular entities (the cat)
▪ Non-specific: Non-specific nouns refer to entities in a general or unspecified manner (a
cat)
▪ any, either – non-specific interpretation (esp. non-affirmative contexts)
 ▪ Generic: Generic nouns refer to entire categories or types of things, expressing qualities or
characteristics that are common to all members of that category. (Cats are independent
animals)
▪ Non-generic: refer to specific, individual instances within a category, focusing on
particular entities rather than general qualities (The cat is sleeping)
Generic NPs usually have one of the following forms:
o the + singular count noun
o a + singular count noun
o plural count noun
o singular mass noun Water is necessary for life.
o the + plural count noun – only with nationality terms The Italians love pasta.

 Relationship between definiteness and genericness and their re;ationships with specificness
o Definitness + specificness
Definiteness often correlates with specificness. Specific nouns tend to be definite because they refer to a
particular entity that is identifiable to both the speaker and the listener.
Example: "The cat" (specific and definite) vs. "A cat" (specific but indefinite).
o Definiteness + genericness
Generic nouns are typically indefinite because they refer to the category as a whole rather than a specific
instance.
Example: "Books are valuable" (generic and indefinite).
o Specificness + genericness
Specifiness and genericness are often mutually exclusive. Specific nouns refer to particular instances or
individuals within a category, while generic nouns refer to the entire category itself.
Example: "The cat" (specific) vs. "Cats are independent animals" (generic)
Overlap: There can be instances where a noun phrase is both specific and generic depending on
context.
Example: "The lion is a majestic animal" (specific instance of a lion being referred to in a generic
statement about lions).

 The structure of the English noun phrase:

o Pre-head modifiers
▪ Adjective Phrases - a (rather) tall girl
▪ Incomplete Noun Phrases - a (North) Yorkshire Dialect
▪ Participles - a visiting professor
▪ Possessive Phrases - an old people’s home
o Complements:
▪ Prepositional Phrase - the author of this book
▪ Content Clause - the fact that he was unmarried
▪ Infinitival Clause - the need to help her
o Post head modifiers:
▪ Prepositional Phrases - a man of honour
▪ Restrictive Relative Clause - the guests she invited
▪ Infinitival Clause - the man to do it
▪ Participial Clause - a child scared of darkness
▪ Adjective Phrases - a person full of alliteration
▪ Noun Phrases - his brother Jim
o Peripheral dependent:
▪ Non-restrictive relative clause - my father, who has just returned from Paris
 ▪ Content Clause - her suggestion - that we should pay half the cost
▪ Noun Phrases - Mary Brown - the Headmaster

 Functions of Noun Phrases (NPs) in Various Structures

o In clause structure
▪ Subject: The NP that performs the action or is described (A student helped us).
▪ Object: The NP that receives the action (They elected a student).
▪ Predicative complement: An NP that completes the meaning of a verb or preposition (She
is a student).
o In PP structure Complement: An NP providing additional information (We were talking [to a
student]).

 Classification of pronouns:
o Personal Pronouns – refer to specific persons or things (I, them, you, he, she, it).
The general definition of personal pronoun is that it is the most basic class of pronoun to which the
category of person applies. (The qualification 'most basic' serves to exclude reflexives and possessives.)
Person is then the category where the terms are distinguished by the role of the referent in the utterance-
act.
o Reciprocal pronouns – indicate a mutual relationship or action between two or more entities
(each other, one another).
The reciprocal pronouns in English are each other and one another. They occur under the same
structural conditions as reflexive pronouns in their basic use - i.e., in the straightforward cases, in the same
clause as their antecedent. The semantic contrast between reciprocals and reflexives may be explained by
reference to:
They had defended one another - Reciprocal
They had defended themselves - Reflexive
o Interrogative Pronouns – used to ask questions (e.g., who, whom, whose, which, what).
o Relative Pronouns – introduce relative clauses (e.g., who, whom, whose, which, that).
o Possessive Pronouns – indicate possession (e.g., mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs).
There are three sets of possessive expressions: an open class of PossPs and the closed classes of
pronouns and determinatives:
mine, ours; yours; his, hers, its; theirs - Pronouns
my, our, your; his, her, its; their - Determinatives
o Reflexive Pronouns – refer back to the subject of the clause (e.g., myself, yourself, himself).
o Demonstrative Pronouns – indicate specific items in relation to the speaker (e.g., this, that,
those).
o Indefinite Pronouns – refer to non-specific entities (e.g., someone, anyone, everyone, nobody,
each, both, few, many, several).

 Functions of pronouns
o Deictic Function - Deictic pronouns use the context of a conversation to show where things or
events are in relation to the speaker, the time, or the people involved.
Example: "This is my book." (indicating something close to the speaker).
o Anaphoric Function – Pronouns refer back to previously mentioned nouns or noun phrases
(antecedents) within the discourse.
  Antecedent, Anaphor, Co-reference
o Antecedent: The noun or noun phrase that a pronoun refers to (e.g., "John lost his keys." John is the
antecedent).
o Anaphor: The pronoun referring back to the antecedent (e.g., "John lost his keys." His is the
anaphor).
o Co-reference: The relationship between the anaphor and its antecedent where both refer to the
same entity
 Co-reference between Various Clause Elements and in Various Sentence Types
Pronouns can co-refer within the same clause or across different clauses and sentences, maintaining
coherence in discourse.
Example: "Mary said that she would come." (She co-refers to Mary across clauses).

I. Adjective and adjective phrases -

II. Complements and modifiers in clauses, NPs, AdjPs, AdvPs and PPs -
III. Functions of AdvPs and PPs in various structures -
IV. Nominalisation, adjectivalisation and adverbialisation -
V. Clause type and function -