10/2/2024

Week 7
Obj. 24
Wavelength (λ): Distance between two consecutive waves

Frequency (ν): Number of waves per unit time (second)

Light

λ · ν = c = speed of light = 3.00 × 108 m/s

E = h · ν (Planck’s equation)
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10−34 J·s
1
Images from: http://missionscience.nasa.gov/ems/02_anatomy.html

Obj. 24
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Obj. 25
Problem with classical physics #1…
The photoelectric effect

Observed only if E(light) ≥ E◦ (threshold energy)

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Obj. 26

ν◦ (threshold frequency)

E◦ = h · ν◦ = Threshold energy (if E(light) ≥ E◦ , photoelectric effect occurs)

Ek(electron) = h · ν − h · ν◦ 4

Problem with classical physics #2… Obj. 27

Line spectra

Problem with classical physics #3… Obj. 27

Line spectra

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Obj. 27
Solution by Albert Einstein
Light is composed of particles called photons that behave like
waves.

A beam of light is not a wave propagating through space but a stream of

particles (the photons), each with energy hν based on Planck’s equation.

• When photons are ejected by the photoelectric effect, the energy of

the individual photon must be greater than the threshold. If the
threshold energy is met, more photons (brighter light) = more
electrons ejected.
• Line spectra occur because the ejected photons each have specific
energies and frequencies (and thus specific colors).
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Obj. 27-29

The Bohr Atom

Excited
Ground states
state

Absorption of energy = e− jumps from a lower

to a higher state

Emission of photon = e− jumps from a higher

to a lower state 8

Obj. 30-31
The Bohr Atom 2π me 1 Where n is a
(Hydrogen) E =− positive integer
h n

E =− where B = 2.18 × 10−18 J

Between two energy levels…

1 1 Also called the

∆E = E −E =B − Rydberg equation
n n (uses λ)

This energy will be equal to the energy (and matching wavelength) of the absorbed/emitted photon…

│ΔEemitted(/absorbed)│= Ephoton = h · ν =
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Obj. 30-31
The Bohr Atom
(Hydrogen)
How much energy is required for the n = 1 to n = 3 transition in
hydrogen?
1 1
∆E = E −E =B −
n n

1 1
∆E = E − E = 2.18 × 10 J −
1 3

1 1 𝟏𝟖
∆E = 2.18 × 10 J − = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐉 (> 0, indicating absorption)
1 9

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Obj. 30-31
The Bohr Atom
(Hydrogen)
In what area of the EM spectrum will a transition from n = 4 to n = 2 be
observed?
1 1
∆E = E −E =B −
n n

1 1
∆E = E − E = 2.18 × 10 J −
4 2

1 1
∆E = 2.18 × 10 J − = −4.09 × 10 J (< 0, indicating emission)
16 4

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Obj. 30-31
The Bohr Atom
(Hydrogen)

E = ∆E =  λ=
∆

6.63 × 10 J s 3.00 × 10 m s
λ=
−4.09 × 10 J

λ = 4.86 × 10 m = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝐧𝐦 1 nm = 10−9 m

Visible (Blue)
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Obj. 32
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can

know both the position and momentum of a particle at a given
time.

h
Δx ∆ mv = Δx m∆v ≥
4π
Uncertainty
Uncertainty in Uncertainty to speed
in position
momentum (assuming absolute precision
(p = mv) on the mass)
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Obj. 32
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
For example a 12-lb bowling ball moving down an alley at 10 m/s
(∆v = 1%)… Uncertainty MANY orders
∆x  1 × 10−34m of magnitude smaller than
the measurement

Assuming a diameter of about 25 cm… 0.25 m ± 1 × 10−34 m

An electron moving around a nucleus at v  2 × 106 m/s (∆v = 1%)…

∆x  2.8 × 10−9m = 2800 pm 1 pm = 10−12 m

Assuming an atomic diameter of about 120 pm… 120 pm ± 2800 pm(!!)

Uncertainty orders of magnitude larger
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(20+ times) than the measurement

Obj. 32
De Broglie Wavelength

Louis de Broglie (1924) states that electrons (and other

subatomic particles) also demonstrate wave nature.

The velocity of a moving object/particle (like an electron) is

related to its wavelength.
h Planck’s
λ= constant
mv
de Broglie Velocity (m/s)
Mass (kg)
wavelength 15

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Obj. 32
De Broglie Wavelength

What is the value of the DeBroglie wavelength of an electron

with a speed of 1.00 × 107 m/s?
h
λ=
mv

6.63 × 10 kg m s
λ=
9.11 × 10 kg 1.00 × 10 m s
1 pm = 10−12 m
λ = 7.28 × 10 m = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟖 𝐩𝐦
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Standing Wave

Notice the whole number

multiples of half-
wavelengths (where n is an
integer).

λ
𝐿=n
2

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Constructive Destructive
interference interference

Combining waves that are not perfectly in-phase results in

(some) destructive interference
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If the standing wave rule is not

followed (i.e. n is not an integer),
the electron’s “trajectory” creates
destructive interference

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Week 8
Obj. 34-35
Schrödinger’s Equation

• The electron-wave is described by a mathematical function called a

wave function ().

• 2 describes the probability of finding an electron at any point in

space.

• A plot of 2 represents an orbital; a position probability distribution

map of the electron.

• Each orbital is described by a set of three interrelated quantum

numbers. A fourth will be added (later) to describe the electrons’
magnetic properties. 20

Obj. 36-37
Quantum Numbers
n = Principle quantum number
= 1, 2, 3, 4… Like the Bohr model
= distance from nucleus

 = Angular momentum quantum number

= 0, 1, 2,…(n − 1)
= shape of orbital All values from 0 to n − 1

m = Magnetic quantum number

Number of values of m =
= −…, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2,…+ number of orbitals (of type )
= orientation of orbital 21

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Obj. 35-38
Quantum Numbers
When n = 1 (first level or “shell”)
 = 0 (results in “s” orbital)
m = 0 (only one value of m = only one s orbital at n = 1)

1st shell (n)

Orbital “type”
(when  = 0)

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Obj. 35-37
Orbitals

An orbital is an area (defined by the

first three quantum numbers)
enclosing a 90% probability of
finding the electron 23

Obj. 37-38
Quantum Numbers
When n = 2 (second shell)
 = 0 (results in “s” orbital)
m = 0 (only one value of m = only one orbital)

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Obj. 38-40
“s” Orbitals

Nodes

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Obj. 37-40
Quantum Numbers

When n = 2 (second shell)

 = 0 (results in “s” orbital)
m = 0 (only one value of m = only one orbital)

But also  = 1 (results in “p” orbital) All values from 0 to n − 1

m = −1, 0, 1 (3 values of m = 3 “p” orbitals)

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Obj. 37-40
“p” Orbitals
n = 2+,  = 1, m = −1, 0, 1

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Obj. 37-40

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Principal Angular Magnetic Quantum Spin Quantum Obj. 37-40

Quantum Number Momentum Number Number
“n” Quantum Number “m” “ms”
“ ”
Orientation
Size and Energy Shape of orbital
(and number) Electron Spin
of orbital (orbital type)
of orbital(s)
From 0 to n − 1 From − to +
Positive integer
(defines shell)
(type of orbital, (number of m values
= number of orbitals)
+½ or −½
defines subshell)
1 0 s 0
2 0 s 0
1 p −1, 0, 1
3 0 s 0
1 p −1, 0, 1
2 d −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
4 0 s 0
1 p −1, 0, 1
2 d −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
3 f −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3
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Obj. 37-40
“d” Orbitals

n = 3+
=2
m = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2

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Obj. 37-40
“f” Orbitals
n = 4+
= 3
m = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3

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Obj. 33, 39-41

Subshell splitting

Electron Shielding
Inner electrons “shield”
outer electrons from the
nucleus’ attraction.

2p electrons are more

shielded than 2s.
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Obj. 41

Predicting
filling order

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Obj. 41-42

Electronic
Configurations

Aufbau Principle:
Electrons occupy the lowest
available energy orbital

Number of
H: 1s1 electrons in
subshell
Shell Subshell

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Obj. 41-42

Electronic
Configurations
H: 1s1
He: 1s2
Li: 1s2 2s1

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:

• No two electrons in an atom may have
the same four quantum numbers
n = 1,  = 0, m = 0, ms = + ½ • Each orbital can accommodate at most
two electrons

Next available energy orbital 35

n = 1,  = 0, m = 0, ms = − ½

Obj. 41-42

Electronic
Configurations
H: 1s1
He: 1s2
Li: 1s2 2s1
Be: 1s2 2s2
B: 1s2 2s2 2p1
C: 1s2 2s2 2p2
Hund’s Rule:
Electrons in degenerate orbitals
avoid pairing up, if possible
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Obj. 41-42

Electronic
Configurations
H: 1s1
He: 1s2
Li: 1s2 2s1
Be: 1s2 2s2
B: 1s2 2s2 2p1 Electronic
C: 1s2 2s2 2p2 Configuration
N: 1s2 2s2 2p3
O: 1s2 2s2 2p4
F: 1s2 2s2 2p5
Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6
37

Para- and Diamagnetism

If an element has unpaired electrons in any orbitals, it is
paramagnetic and will be attracted to external magnetic
fields.

If all its electrons are paired, it is diamagnetic and will be

weakly repelled by magnetic fields.

Ex.
Co: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7 Paramagnetic

Zn: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 Diamagnetic 38

Obj. 41-42
(Predicted) Electronic Configurations

Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6

Z = 10

Si: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

Z = 14

V: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3

Z = 23

Ir: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d7
Z = 77

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Obj. 41-42
(Predicted) Electronic Configurations
Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6
Si: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
V: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
Ir: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d7

40

Determining “n”
n = row

n = row − 1

n = row − 2
41

Determining
the subshell/orbital
(and )
“s” “p”
“d”

“f”
42

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Abbreviated (Predicted) Electronic Configuration

Chlorine

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

Nearest Third row, Third row,
noble gas “s” block “p” block

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

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Abbreviated (Predicted) Electronic Configuration

Platinum

[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d8

Nearest Sixth row, Sixth row Sixth row
noble gas “s” block minus 2, minus 1,
“f” block “d” block

[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d8

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