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Data and Signals

1
Datato Representation
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• Analog vs. Digital Data: Analog data is

continuous, while digital data is discrete.
Understanding the difference is crucial for
communication systems.
• Binary Representation: Digital data is often
represented in binary (0s and 1s), which is the
foundation for computer systems and digital
communications.
2 2
Signals:
Click to edit Master title style

• Analog Signals: Continuous waveforms that vary

over time. They are used to represent analog data
(e.g., sound, light).
• Digital Signals: Signals that have discrete values,
often used for transmitting digital data.

3 3
Signal
Click Conversion:
to edit Master title style

• Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): Process of

converting analog signals (like sound waves) into
digital data.
• Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC): Process of
converting digital data into analog signals for
transmission over analog media.

4 4
Analog-to-Digital
Click Conversion
to edit Master title style (ADC)
• This is the process of converting an analog signal
(continuous) into a digital signal (discrete), which
can then be processed or transmitted by digital
devices.

5 5
Steps
Click in Master
to edit ADC:title style
1. Sampling: The analog signal is sampled at
regular intervals to create a series of discrete
values. The sampling rate is crucial—it must be
at least twice the highest frequency present in
the signal to accurately capture the information
(Nyquist Theorem).

6 6
Steps
Click in Master
to edit ADC:title style
2. Quantization: Each sample is then rounded to
the nearest value from a finite set of levels.
This process introduces a small error known as
quantization noise.
3. Encoding: The quantized values are then
converted into binary code, which can be
transmitted, stored, or processed by digital
systems.
7 7
KeytoConcepts
Click in style
edit Master title ADC:
1. Sampling Rate: The number of samples taken
per second, typically measured in Hertz (Hz). A
higher sampling rate allows for more accurate
representation of the analog signal.
2. Quantization Levels: The number of discrete
values available for representing the signal.
More levels (higher resolution) mean a more
accurate digital representation.
8 8
KeytoConcepts
Click in style
edit Master title ADC:
2. Bit Depth: The number of bits used to represent
each sample. A higher bit depth allows for more
precision in representing the signal's amplitude.

9 9
Applications:
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1. Audio Recording: When sound is captured by a

microphone (analog), it's converted into a
digital signal for processing or storage.
2. Digital Cameras: Light (analog signal) captured
by sensors is converted into digital data (pixels)
for display or storage.

1010
Digital-to-Analog
Click Conversion
to edit Master title style (DAC)
This is the reverse process of ADC, where a digital
signal is converted back into an analog signal,
allowing the data to be transmitted over analog
mediums or interpreted by analog devices.

1111
Steps
Click in Master
to edit DAC:title style
1. Decoding: The binary data is converted back
into quantized values.
2. Smoothing: The signal is smoothed out to
create a continuous waveform, removing the
"stair-step" appearance that results from
quantization.

1212
KeytoConcepts
Click in style
edit Master title DAC:
1. Interpolation: In the DAC process, interpolation
methods can be used to estimate values
between digital points and smooth the output.
2. Reconstruction Filter: A low-pass filter is often
used to remove high-frequency components
introduced during the digital conversion
process and to recover the original analog
signal as closely as possible.
1313
Applications:
Click to edit Master title style

1. Applications: Audio Playback: Digital music files

(MP3, WAV) are converted to analog signals to
drive speakers or headphones.
2. Video Display: Digital video data is converted to
analog signals to be displayed on certain types
of screens (such as CRT displays).

1414
Importance
Click to edit Masterof Signal
title style Conversion:
1. Interoperability: Devices that work with different
types of signals (e.g., digital computers and
analog speakers) need signal conversion to
communicate.
2. Data Transmission: Many communication
channels (e.g., radio waves, telephone lines)
are inherently analog, requiring digital data to
be converted into analog signals for
transmission and vice versa for reception. 1515
Additional
Click to edit Concepts
Master titleRelated
style to Signal Conversion:

1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): A method used

to digitally represent analog signals, widely
used in digital audio (e.g., in CDs).Delta-Sigma
Modulation: A technique used in ADCs to
achieve high accuracy by oversampling the
signal and using noise shaping.Nyquist
Theorem: This theorem states that the
sampling rate must be at least twice the
maximum frequency present in the analog 1616
Additional
Click to edit Concepts
Master titleRelated
style to Signal Conversion:

1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): A method used

to digitally represent analog signals, widely
used in digital audio (e.g., in CDs).
2. Delta-Sigma Modulation: A technique used in
ADCs to achieve high accuracy by
oversampling the signal and using noise
shaping.

1717
Summary
Click to editofMaster
the Process:
title style

ADC: Analog → Sample → Quantize → Encode →

Digital

DAC: Digital → Decode → Smooth → Analog

1818
Transmission
Click Methods:
to edit Master title style

1. Baseband Transmission: Direct transmission of

digital data without modulation.
2. Broadband Transmission: Uses modulation
techniques to transmit data over a wider range
of frequencies.

1919
Baseband
Click to editTransmission
Master title style

Baseband transmission is a method where the

original data signal is transmitted without
modulation, using the full bandwidth of the
medium.

2020
Characteristics:
Click to edit Master title style

1. Unmodulated: The signal is sent in its original

form, typically as a digital signal.
2. Direct: The data is transmitted directly over the
medium without shifting to higher frequencies.
3. Short Distances: Baseband transmission is
typically used for short-distance
communications, such as within a Local Area
Network (LAN).
2121
Example:
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Ethernet: One of the most common examples of

baseband transmission is Ethernet, where digital
signals are transmitted over coaxial cables or
twisted-pair cables within a local network.

2222
Limitations:
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1. Distance: Baseband signals can only travel

over relatively short distances without
degradation or signal loss.
2. No Frequency Multiplexing: Since the signal
occupies the entire bandwidth, you cannot
transmit multiple signals simultaneously on the
same medium without multiplexing.

2323
Broadband
Click Transmission
to edit Master title style

Broadband transmission uses modulation to shift

the data signal to a higher frequency, allowing
multiple signals to be transmitted over the same
medium simultaneously.

2424
Characteristics:
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1. Modulated Signal: The signal is modulated onto

a carrier wave, often allowing multiple channels
to exist within the same bandwidth.
2. Longer Distances: Broadband is typically used
for long-distance communication as it can
handle higher frequencies and multiple signals.

2525
Characteristics:
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3. Simultaneous Transmission: Allows multiple

signals (channels) to be transmitted over the
same medium by dividing the available
bandwidth.

2626
Examples:
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1. Cable TV: Cable TV systems use broadband

transmission to send many channels over a
single coaxial cable.
2. Internet Over Cable: Broadband internet
transmits data along with television signals over
the same medium.

2727
Advantages:
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Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Different

frequency bands are allocated to multiple signals,
allowing for simultaneous data transmission.

2828
Modulation
Click Techniques:
to edit Master title style

Modulation is a fundamental technique used in

communication systems to transmit information
over a communication channel. It involves varying
a carrier signal's properties—such as amplitude,
frequency, or phase—in accordance with the
information signal being transmitted. This process
allows efficient and effective transmission of
signals over various media, such as radio waves,
optical fibers, or cables. 2929
Carrier
Click Signal:
to edit Master title style

Definition: A high-frequency signal used to carry

the information signal. The carrier signal is
modulated (changed) based on the information
signal.
Purpose: Helps in transmitting the information
signal over long distances by shifting it to a
frequency range suitable for the communication
channel.
3030
Modulation
Click Techniques:
to edit Master title style

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varies the

amplitude of the carrier signal in proportion to
the information signal.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Varies the
frequency of the carrier signal based on the
information signal.

3131
Typestoof
Click Modulation
edit Master titleTechniques
style

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation (PM)
4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

3232
Amplitude
Click to edit Modulation (AM)
Master title style

Concept: The amplitude (height) of the carrier wave

is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the
information signal.
Example: AM radio broadcasting uses AM to
transmit audio signals. The audio signal modulates
the carrier frequency, which is then broadcasted
over the airwaves.
.
3333
Amplitude
Click to edit Modulation (AM)
Master title style

Advantages: Simple to implement and can be

received with simple receivers.
Disadvantages: Susceptible to noise and
interference, which can affect the amplitude.

3434
 Frequency
Click Modulation
to edit Master (FM)
title style

Concept: The frequency of the carrier wave is

varied in accordance with the information signal.
Example: FM radio broadcasting uses FM to
transmit audio signals. The carrier frequency is
shifted up or down depending on the audio signal.

3535
 Frequency
Click Modulation
to edit Master (FM)
title style

Advantages: Provides better noise immunity and

sound quality compared to AM.
Disadvantages: Requires more bandwidth and
complex receivers.

3636
PhasetoModulation
Click (PM)style
edit Master title

Concept: The phase of the carrier wave is shifted

according to the information signal.
Example: Used in some digital communication
systems, such as in certain types of satellite
communication.

3737
PhasetoModulation
Click (PM)style
edit Master title

Advantages: Offers good noise resistance and is

used in combination with other modulation
schemes like PSK (Phase Shift Keying).
Disadvantages: Can be complex to demodulate
and may require more power.

3838
Quadrature
Click Amplitude
to edit Master Modulation (QAM)
title style

Concept: Combines both amplitude and phase

modulation. The carrier signal's amplitude and
phase are varied to represent multiple bits of data
per symbol.
Example: Used in digital television, broadband
modems, and some digital radio systems.

3939
Applications
Click of Modulation
to edit Master title style Techniques

1. Radio and Television Broadcasting:AM and FM:

Used to transmit audio signals over the
airwaves for AM and FM radio. FM is also used
for high-fidelity audio broadcasting in television.
2. Telecommunications:QAM: Used in digital
telephony and data communications systems,
such as cable modems and DSL, to transmit
high-speed data over telephone lines or cable
systems. 4040
Applications
Click of Modulation
to edit Master title style Techniques

3. Satellite Communication:FM and QAM: Used

for transmitting television signals, internet data,
and voice communication via satellites. FM
provides robustness against signal degradation
in the atmosphere.
4. Cellular Networks:QAM and PSK: Utilized in
mobile networks to provide high-speed data
services, including internet access, text
messaging, and voice calls. 4141
Applications
Click of Modulation
to edit Master title style Techniques

5. Data Transmission:PSK and QAM: Employed in

various data communication systems like
Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth to achieve high
data rates and reliable communication.
6. Medical Devices:AM and FM: Used in some
medical telemetry systems for transmitting
patient data from medical devices to monitoring
stations.
4242
Bandwidth
Click to edit Master title style

• Refers to the range of frequencies a

communication channel can carry.
• It is a key concept that affects the amount of data
that can be transmitted over a given medium
within a specified time frame.
• In simpler terms, bandwidth defines the data
transmission capacity of a communication system.

4343
Typestoof
Click Bandwidth
edit Master title style

1. Frequency Bandwidth (Analog Communication)

2. Data Bandwidth (Digital Communication)

4444
Frequency
Click Bandwidth
to edit Master (Analog Communication)
title style

In analog systems, bandwidth refers to the

difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies that a channel can carry.
It’s measured in Hertz (Hz).
Example: If a communication channel can carry
signals between 1 MHz and 5 MHz, the bandwidth
of that channel is 4 MHz.

4545
Data to
Click Bandwidth
edit Master(Digital Communication)
title style

In digital communication, bandwidth refers to the

data transfer rate or the maximum amount of data
that can be transmitted over a network in a given
period of time.
It’s typically measured in bits per second (bps),
kilobits per second (Kbps), megabits per second
(Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).

4646
Data to
Click Bandwidth
edit Master(Digital Communication)
title style

Example: An internet connection with a bandwidth

of 100 Mbps can transfer 100 million bits of data
per second.

4747
Channel
Click Capacity
to edit Master title style

Bandwidth directly affects the channel capacity,

which is the maximum data rate that can be
transmitted over a communication channel. The
higher the bandwidth, the more data can be
transmitted per second.

4848
SignaltoFrequency
Click and style
edit Master title Bandwidth

Analog Signals: In analog systems (like radio or TV

signals), the bandwidth is the difference between
the highest and lowest frequencies that can be
transmitted.
Digital Signals: In digital systems, bandwidth
determines how quickly data can be transmitted
and how much data can be sent in parallel

4949
Shannon-Hartley
Click to edit Master Theorem
title style

C: Channel capacity in bits per second (bps)

B: Bandwidth in Hertz (Hz)
SNR: Signal-to-noise ratio

This formula shows that the channel capacity

increases as bandwidth or signal quality increases.

5050
Shannon-Hartley
Click to edit Master Theorem
title style

This theorem helps calculate the maximum data

rate for a communication channel based on
bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

Formula: C=B⋅𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ​ (1+SNR)

5151
Factors
Click Affecting
to edit Master Bandwidth
title style

1. Medium of Transmission:
The type of medium (wired or wireless) affects the
bandwidth.
Wired Transmission: Media like fiber optic cables have
higher bandwidth compared to traditional copper cables.
Wireless Transmission: Wi-Fi, cellular, and satellite
communication generally have lower bandwidth
compared to wired connections but continue to improve
with advancements in technology (e.g., 5G).
5252
Factors
Click Affecting
to edit Master Bandwidth
title style

2. Noise: External noise and interference can reduce

the effective bandwidth of a channel. Noise impacts
the clarity of signals, limiting the amount of data that
can be transmitted reliably.

5353
Factors
Click Affecting
to edit Master Bandwidth
title style

3. Latency and Bandwidth:

Latency refers to the time delay in data transmission.
While bandwidth defines how much data can be
transmitted, latency affects the time it takes for data to
travel from source to destination. High bandwidth with
high latency can result in slower performance for time-
sensitive applications (e.g., online gaming or video calls).

5454
Typestoof
Click Bandwidth
edit instyle
Master title Communication

1. Narrowband
2. Broadband

5555
Narrowband
Click to edit Master title style

Narrowband systems have a small bandwidth and can

only transmit lower amounts of data. These systems are
typically used for long-distance, low-data-rate
communication.

Example: Traditional AM radio transmissions are

narrowband because they use a small frequency range to
carry information.

5656
 Importance
Click of Bandwidth
to edit Master title style in Different Applications

1. Internet bandwidth
2. Video streaming
3. Voice communication
4. Data transmission in networks

5757
Internet
Click Bandwidth
to edit Master title style

The data bandwidth of an internet connection determines

the speed at which users can download or upload data.
Higher bandwidth means faster browsing, video
streaming, or downloading large files.

5858
VideotoStreaming
Click edit Master title style

High-quality video (like 4K or HD streaming) requires

more bandwidth. For example, streaming in 4K resolution
can require 25 Mbps or more, while standard-definition
video may only need 2-5 Mbps.

5959
VoicetoCommunication
Click edit Master title style

Bandwidth is also important for voice over internet

protocols (VoIP) and traditional telecommunication
systems. Better bandwidth enables clearer and more
reliable voice calls.

6060
 DatatoTransmission
Click in Networks
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Local Area Networks (LAN) with higher bandwidth allow

multiple devices to transmit large amounts of data
simultaneously without bottlenecks.

6161
Bandwidth
Click Efficiency
to edit Master title style

Bandwidth efficiency refers to how effectively a

communication system uses the available bandwidth.
Techniques to improve efficiency include:
1. Modulation Schemes: Advanced modulation schemes
(e.g., QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) enable
higher data rates without needing more bandwidth.

6262
Bandwidth
Click Efficiency
to edit Master title style

2. Data compression reduces the size of transmitted

data, allowing more information to fit within the
available bandwidth.
3. Multiplexing: Techniques like Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM) or Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) allow multiple data streams to share the same
bandwidth more efficiently.

6363
Bandwidth
Click vs. Throughput
to edit Master title style

Bandwidth refers to the theoretical maximum data

transfer capacity of a communication channel.

Throughput is the actual amount of data transferred over

the network in a given time, which can be affected by
factors such as network congestion, signal quality, and
errors.

6464
Click to edit and
Bandwidth Master title style
Network Performance

The amount of bandwidth directly influences the

performance of networks.
For example:
High Bandwidth: Allows for multiple high-bandwidth
applications (like video calls, large file downloads, and
streaming) to function smoothly.
Low Bandwidth: May result in slower data transfer
speeds, buffering in video streams, or delays in real-time
applications like gaming.
6565
Click
Signalto Encoding
edit Master title style

Signal encoding is the process of converting data into

signals that can be transmitted over a communication
medium.
In digital and data communication, signals carry
information from one device to another, and encoding
ensures that the data is represented in a form that can be
effectively transmitted and understood by both the sender
and the receiver.

6666
Click to edit
Purpose of Master
Signal title style
Encoding

The primary purpose of signal encoding is to efficiently

and accurately transfer data over communication
channels.
Encoding transforms the data into a signal form
compatible with the characteristics of the transmission
medium (e.g., copper wire, fiber optics, radio waves).

6767
Click to edit
Purpose of Master
Signal title style
Encoding

Additionally, encoding may help to:

1. Minimize errors during transmission.
2. Ensure synchronization between sender and receiver.
3. Optimize the bandwidth usage.
4. Improve security by encoding data for transmission.

6868
Click
Types toof
edit Master
Signal title style
Encoding

1. Digital-to-Digital Encoding
2. Digital-to-Analog Encoding
3. Analog-to-Digital Encoding
4. Analog-to-Analog Encoding

6969
Click to edit MasterEncoding
Digital-to-Digital title style

Digital data is encoded as digital signals for transmission.

Commonly used in computer networks, digital storage,

and data transmission over short distances.

7070
Click to edit Master
Techniques title style encoding)
(Digital-to-digital

1. Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) Encoding

2. Manchester Encoding
3. Differential Manchester

7171
Click to edit Master
Non-Return title
to Zero style Encoding
(NRZ)

• NRZ-Level (NRZ-L): The signal level does not return to

zero between bits. A high voltage may represent a
binary 1, and a low voltage may represent a binary 0.
• NRZ-Inverted (NRZ-I): A change in signal level indicates
a binary 1, while no change indicates a binary 0.

7272
Click to edit Master
Non-Return title
to Zero style Encoding
(NRZ)

• Function: NRZ encoding is used in RS-232, a standard

for serial communication. In this context, NRZ encoding
helps in the transmission of data bits over serial lines.
• Example: RS-232 is used for connecting computers with
peripherals like modems, printers, and mice. In these
connections, NRZ encoding ensures that the binary data
is transmitted with a straightforward representation of
binary 1s and 0s.

7373
Click to edit Master
Non-Return title
to Zero style Encoding
(NRZ)

• Function: NRZ encoding is used in magnetic tape data

storage systems to represent binary data. It allows for
efficient storage and retrieval of digital data.
• Example: Legacy data storage systems and
some backup systems use magnetic tapes to
store large amounts of data, with NRZ encoding
simplifying the recording process.

7474
Click to edit Master
. Manchester title style
Encoding

• A transition occurs in the middle of each bit period, used

for synchronization.
• A transition from low to high represents a binary 1, and
from high to low represents a binary 0.
• Used in Ethernet.

7575
Click to edit Master
. Manchester title style
Encoding
• Ethernet (Local Area Networks - LANs)
• Application: 10BASE-T Ethernet Function: Manchester encoding
is used in the original Ethernet standard (10BASE-T) to encode
the binary data transmitted over the network.
• Example: In Ethernet LANs, Manchester encoding ensures that
each bit of data contains a transition in the middle of the bit
period, which helps maintain synchronization between the
sender and receiver and allows data to be transmitted
accurately over network cables. It's mainly used in older
Ethernet systems, but it laid the groundwork for modern data
transmission. 7676
Click to edit Master
. Manchester title style
Encoding
• Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)
• Application: RFID Systems
• Function: Manchester encoding is used in RFID communication
to ensure robust transmission and minimize errors.
• Example: In RFID tags (used in inventory tracking, contactless
payment systems, and access control), Manchester encoding
helps in reducing signal errors and ensures that the signal can
be easily detected and decoded by the RFID reader.

7777
Click to edit Master
. Manchester title style
Encoding
• Infrared Communication (IrDA)
• Application: Infrared Data Association (IrDA)
• Function: Manchester encoding is used in IrDA standards for
short-range, point-to-point communication between devices.
• Example: Devices like old TV remotes, laptops, printers, and
mobile phones that used infrared communication applied
Manchester encoding to transmit data via infrared light, ensuring
synchronization and reducing errors.

7878
Click to edit Master
. Manchester title style
Encoding
• Consumer Electronics
• Application: Digital Audio Transmission (S/PDIF)
• Function: Manchester encoding is used in the Sony/Philips
Digital Interface (S/PDIF) standard for transmitting digital audio
between devices.
• Example: Devices such as CD players, DVD players, digital
TVs, and sound systems use S/PDIF, which employs
Manchester encoding to transmit high-quality digital audio
signals over optical or coaxial cables without losing
synchronization between the source and receiver.
7979
Click to edit Manchester
Differential Master title style

• No transition at the beginning of the bit period indicates a binary

1, while a transition at the beginning indicates a binary 0.

8080
Click to edit Manchester
Differential Master title style

• Ethernet Networks (Token Ring)

• Application: Token Ring Networks
• Function: Differential Manchester encoding was used in IEEE
802.5 Token Ring network standards to transmit data.
• Example: In older local area networks (LANs), such as Token
Ring networks, Differential Manchester encoding helped ensure
reliable data transmission, synchronization, and error detection.
This encoding ensured that the system remained resilient even
if the signal experienced polarity inversion during transmission.

8181
Click to edit Manchester
Differential Master title style

• Magnetic Storage Devices

• Application: Hard Drives and Magnetic Tape Storage
• Function: In some magnetic storage devices, such as older hard
disk drives (HDDs) and magnetic tapes, Differential Manchester
encoding was used to store data reliably by encoding
information in the direction of signal transitions.
• Example: In systems that require reliable and robust storage
mechanisms, especially older or legacy systems, Differential
Manchester encoding helped prevent errors during data retrieval
by encoding transitions rather than absolute levels.
8282
Click to edit Manchester
Differential Master title style

• RFID Communication
• Application: Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) Systems
• Function: Differential Manchester encoding is used in RFID
systems to transmit data between RFID tags and readers.
• Example: In access control systems (e.g., building entry
systems) or inventory tracking using RFID, Differential
Manchester encoding helps ensure robust communication
despite environmental noise or signal degradation. This
encoding improves the reliability of reading RFID tags over long
distances.
8383
Click to edit Manchester
Differential Master title style

• Telecommunication Systems
• Application: ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
• Function: Differential Manchester encoding is used in ISDN
networks to transmit voice, video, and data over digital
telephone lines.
• Example: ISDN was widely used for transmitting digital voice
and video signals over traditional telephone lines, and
Differential Manchester encoding helped ensure error-free
transmission and synchronization across long distances.

8484
Click to edit Manchester
Differential Master title style

• Data Transmission in Space Communication

• Application: NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN)
• Function: Differential Manchester encoding is used in
communication systems like NASA’s DSN for reliable data
transmission between spacecraft and ground stations.
• Example: In long-distance communication between spacecraft
(like the Mars rovers) and Earth, Differential Manchester
encoding helps maintain signal integrity and synchronization,
ensuring that critical data can be transmitted without errors
despite the vast distances and potential signal degradation.
8585