Chemical reaction

Aqueous solutions and solubility

Solutions
•Solvent and Solute.
•Factors affecting solubility.
•Colligative properties of solutions:
•Boiling point elevation.
•Freezing point depression
What is a solution?
• A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
• In general, the solvent is the most abundant
component, but in some cases, the substances are
miscible—soluble in each other in any proportion—so
the terms “solute” and “solvent” lose their meaning.
• The physical state of the solvent usually determines
the physical state of the solution.
• Solutions can be gaseous, liquid, or solid, but we focus
mostly on liquid solutions because they are by far the
most important.
What is a solubility
• A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
• In general, the solvent is the most abundant
component, but in some cases, the substances are
miscible—soluble in each other in any proportion—so
the terms “solute” and “solvent” lose their meaning.
• The physical state of the solvent usually determines
the physical state of the solution.
• Solutions can be gaseous, liquid, or solid, but we focus
mostly on liquid solutions because they are by far the
most important.
Concentration
• the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at a
given temperature

•described as dilute if it has a

low concentration of solute
dissolved

•described as concentrated if it
has a high concentration of
solute dissolved
Concentration
•Unsaturated - has a less than the
maximum concentration of solute
dissolved

•Saturated - has the maximum

concentration of solute dissolved (can
see solid in bottom of solution)

•Supersaturated -contains more

dissolved solute than normally possible
(usually requires an increase in
temperature followed by cooling)
Solubility

• the amount of solute that dissolves in

a certain amount of a solvent at a
given temperature and pressure to
produce a saturated solution
 Factors affecting solubility of solids

Temperature Shaking

increased temperature causes

solids to dissolve faster
Shaking (agitation) causes
solids to dissolve faster

Particle Size

Smaller particles dissolve

Faster because they have
more surface area

Note: Increasing the amount of solute DOES NOT increase the

rate of dissolving
 • Miscible liquids can easily dissolve in
one another.
• Immiscible liquids are not soluble in
each other.

Chemistry-Borders
Polarity and Dissolving
• Chemists use the saying “like
dissolves like”:
ØPolar solutes tend to
dissolve in polar solvents.
ØNonpolar solutes tend to
dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.

Oil is nonpolar while water is

polar. They are immiscible.
Solubility Curves
Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.
To read the graph,
find the line for
the substance.
The amount that
dissolves at a
given temperature
is on the y- axis.
 How much KNO3
dissolves in 100g (or
100mL H2O at 50oC?
1.Find the line (green)
2.Find the temperature
and follow up to the line.(red
arrow)
3. Read across to the y- axis
and this is the answer. (purple
arrow)
4. Since it is more than ½-way
between 80 and 90, it is 87.
 A point on the line is a saturated solution.
 Above the line is supersaturated.
 Below the line is unsaturated.
Using Solubility Curves
What is the solubility of
NaNO3 in 100 g of H2O at
0°C?
73g NaNO3
How many grams of KNO3
will dissolve in 200g of H2O
at 25°C?
35g = ?
100g H2O 200g H2O
= 0 g KNO3
How much water is needed to
dissolve 190g of NaNO3 at
30°C?
95g = 190g
100g H2O ? g H2O
= 200 g H2O
Ways of expressing concentration of solutions

• The concentration of solution can be expressed in a

number of ways as follows:
a) concentration in mg/L
b) Molarity (mol/L)
c) Percentage (by mass or by volume)
d) Molality
e) Strength (mass titre)
f) Normality
g) Mole fraction
h) Ppm,ppt,ppb…..

16
Mass Percent
Mass Percent
• Solutions can also be represented as percent of solute in
a specific mass of solution.

• For a solid dissolved in water, you use percent by mass

which is Mass Percent.

���� ������
%�� ���� = × 100
���� �� ��������

**Mass of solution = solute mass + solvent mass

 Example 1
• If a solution that has a mass of 800.0 grams
contains 20.0 grams of NaCl, what is the
concentration using Percent by Mass?
���� ������
• %�� ���� = × 100
���� �� ��������

20.0� ����
• %�� ���� = × 100 = 2.5%����
800.0� ��������
 Example 2
• If 10.0 grams of NaCl is dissolved in 90.0 grams of
water, what is the concentration using Percent by
Mass?

���� ������
• %�� ���� = × 100
���� �� ��������
10.0� ����
• %�� ���� = × 100 = 10.0% ����
100.0� ��������
 Example 3

• How many grams of sodium bromide are in 200.0g of

solution that is 15.0% sodium bromide by mass?

���� ������
• %�� ���� = × 100
���� �� ��������
?� ����
• %�� ���� = × 100 = 15.0%����
200.0� ��������
200.0∗15.0
• ����� = = 30� ����
100
Mole fraction
The amount of a given component (in moles) divided by
the total amount (in moles)
ni
xi 
n 1  n 2  n 3  .....

The sum of the mole fractions of the components of a

solution is unity.
Thus ∑ Xi = 1
22
Molality (m)
• Number of moles of the component present in
one kg of the solvent
• Thus ma = moles of A/mass of the solvent in Kg
• Or ma = na/kg of solvent
• Remember that Molarity (M) is the number of
the solute in one liter of the solution

23
Molarity

• Molarity is the concentration of a solution

expressed in moles of solute per Liter of solution.
• Molarity is a conversion factor for calculations

����� �� ������ � ��� ������

• �������� � = =
������ �� �������� ��� � ��������
Molarity: Exercises

1. What is the molarity of a solution that has 2.3 moles

of sodium chloride in 0.45 liters of solution?
2. How many moles of Na2CO3 are there in 10.0 L of 2.0
M solution?
3. How many moles of KNO3 are needed to make 450.
mL of 1.5 molar solution?
4. How many grams of NaCl are needed to make 3.0 L of
1.5 M solution?
5. How many L of 4.0 M solution can be made with
132g of NaCl ?(.565 L)
Molarity: Answer
2.3 moles NaCl = 5.1M NaCl
0.45 L
10.0 L 2.0 mol Na2CO3 = 20.0 moles Na2CO3
1 1L

450. mL 1L 1.5 mol KNO3

= .675 moles KNO3
1 1000mL 1L

3.0 L 1.5 mol NaCl 58.44 g NaCl

= 260 g NaCl
1 1L 1 mol NaCl
Dilution
 Dilutions and Molarity

• Use this formula to make a more dilute

solution from a concentrated solution
Molarity1 x Volume1 = Molarity2 x Volume2
(Concentrated) (Dilute)
(before) = (after)

M 1V 1 = M 2V 2
Example 1
How many liters of 2.5 M HCl are required to make 1.5 L
of 1.0 M HCl?
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = 2.5 M
V1 = ?
M2 = 1.0 M
V2 = 1.5 L

(2.5M) V1 = (1.0M) (1.5 L) = 0.60L

2.5M 2.5M
Example 1

M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the
volume of 2.5M HCl you calculated above
to make the solution?
(draw this in your notes)
1st add .60L of HCl to measuring device.
Example 1

M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the
volume of 2.5M HCl you calculated above
to make the solution?
Then add enough water to get to 1.5L of
solution
V2 – V1 = Amount of water
1.5L – 0.60L = 0.90L water
Example 1

M1 = 2.5M V1 = 0.60L M2 = 1.0 M V2= 1.5 L

How much water should you add to the
volume of 2.5M HCl you calculated above
to make the solution?
Final solution is 1.5L of 1.0M HCl
 Example 2

• 250.0 mL of a 0.500 M HCl solution needs to be made

from concentrated HCl. What volume of the
concentrated solution is needed if its molarity is 12.0
M?
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 =
V1 =
M2 =
V2 =
Example 2
• 250.0 mL of a 0.500 M HCl solution needs to be made from
concentrated HCl. What volume of the concentrated solution is
needed if its molarity is
12.0 M?
M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = 12.0M How much water would you

add to make the final
V1 = 10.4mL solution?
M2 = 0.500M
V2 = 250.0mL 250.0mL - 10.4mL = 239.6mL
Strength or mass titre: amount of the solute in grams
present per liter of solution (i.e. g/L);
C= grams of solute/Liters of solution
Mass percent (%): it is defined as the amount of solute in
grams present in 100 g of the solution.
Normality(N): Normality of a solution is defined as the
number of gram equivalents of the solute present per
liter of solution. It is represented by the symbol N
[N=Greq/V(l)]
Similarly, normality equation is as follows:N1V1= N2V2 since
the number of gram equivalents remains the same
before and after dilution. 35
Normality: Calculation of equivalent weights

• Basicity is the number of displaceable H+ ions from 1 molecule of the

acid (e.g.: 1 for HCl, 2 for H2SO4, 3 for H3PO4)

• Acidity is the number of displaceable OH- ions from 1 molecule of the

Base (e.g.: 1 for NaOH, 2 for Ca(OH)2, etc)

36
Application: Strength, Molarity, Normality, molality

1. A solution of oxalic acid, (COOH)2.2H2O is prepared

by dissoving 0.63 g of the acid in 250 cm3 of the
solution. Calculate (a) molarity (b) Normality (c)
Concentration in g/L
2. Commercially available concentrated hydrochloric
acid contains 38% HCl by mass.
a) What is the molarity of this solution? The density
is 1.19 g cm-3?
b)What volume of concentrated HCl is required to
make 500 mL of 0.10 M HCl?

37
Application: Strength, Molarity, Normality, molality(next)
3.a) A sample of NaOH weighing 0.40 g is dissolved in
water and the solution is made to 50.0 cm3 in
volumetric flask. What is the molarity of the resulting
solution?
b) How many grams of NaOH should be dissolved to
make 100cm3 of 0.15M NaOH
4. Concentrated aqueous sulfuric acid is 98% H2SO4 by
mass and has a density of 1.84 gcm3. What volume of
concentrated acid is required to make 5.0 L of 0.50M
H2SO4 solution? Calculate the Normality of diluted sln.
5. A solution is made by dissolving 25g of BaCl2 in
500cm3 of distilled water. Calculate the molality of the
resulting solution
38