SOLUTIONS

PREPARED BY : MS. RLENE MATEO

Solutions
 Student, Beware!

Just because a substance disappears when it comes

in contact with a solvent, it doesn’t mean the
substance dissolved.

• Dissolution is a physical change—you can get back

the original solute by evaporating the solvent.
• If you can’t, the substance didn’t dissolve, it reacted.
 Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or
more pure substances.
• In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent

Solutions
An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved,
results in a solution that does not conduct electricity.

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

 Solutions
The intermolecular
forces between solute
and solvent particles
must be strong enough
to compete with those
between solute particles
and those between
solvent particles.

Solutions
 Types of Solutions

Gaseous solutions – air = Oxygen + Nitrogen

Liquid solutions – drinks = mix + water

Solid solutions – alloys = steel, brass, etc

Solutions
How Does a Solution Form?

As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute

particles apart and surrounds, or solvates,
them.

Solutions
Three types of interactions in the solution process:
• solvent-solvent interaction
• solute-solute interaction
• solvent-solute interaction

Hsoln = H1 + H2 + H3

How Does a Solution Form
If an ionic salt is soluble
in water, it is because
the ion-dipole
interactions are strong
enough to overcome
the lattice energy of the
salt crystal.
Solutions
Why Do Endothermic Processes
Occur?
Things do not tend to occur
spontaneously (i.e., without
outside intervention) unless
the energy of the system is
lowered.

Yet we know that in some

processes, like the
dissolution of NH4NO3 in
water, heat is absorbed, not
released. Solutions
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the
solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific
temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is
added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.
 Concentration
•Unsaturated - has a less than
the maximum concentration of
solute dissolved

•Saturated - has the maximum

concentration of solute dissolved
(can see solid in bottom of
solution)

•Supersaturated -contains more

dissolved solute than normally
possible (usually requires an
increase in temperature followed Solutions
by cooling)
Types of Solutions
• Saturated
Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at
that temperature.
Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium with
solid solute particles.
Solutions
 Types of Solutions
• Unsaturated
Less than the
maximum amount of
solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.
Solutions
 Types of Solutions

• Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal”
Solutions
or scratching the side of the flask.
Factors affecting solubility of solids

Temperature

increased temperature causes

solids to dissolve faster

Note: Increasing the amount of solute Solutions

DOES NOT increase the rate of dissolving

Factors affecting solubility of solids

Shaking

Shaking (agitation) causes

solids to dissolve faster

Note: Increasing the amount of solute Solutions

DOES NOT increase the rate of dissolving
Factors affecting solubility of solids

Particle Size

Smaller particles dissolve

Faster because they have
more surface area

Note: Increasing the amount of solute Solutions

DOES NOT increase the rate of dissolving
• Miscible liquids can easily dissolve in one
another.
• Immiscible liquids are not soluble in
each other.

Solutions
Chemistry-Borders
 Polarity and Dissolving

• Chemists use the saying

“like dissolves like”:
Polar solutes tend to
dissolve in polar solvents.
Nonpolar solutes tend to
dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.
Oil is nonpolar while water is
polar. They are immiscible.
Solutions
 Mass Percent

Solutions
Chemistry-Borders IPC-Solutions-Borders
 Mass Percent
• Solutions can also be represented as percent
of solute in a specific mass of solution.
• For a solid dissolved in water, you use percent
by mass which is Mass Percent.

• % by mass = mass solute x 100

mass of solution

**Mass of solution = solute mass + solvent mass

Solutions
 Example 1
• If a solution that has a mass of 800.0
grams contains 20.0 grams of NaCl,
what is the concentration using Percent
by Mass?
% by mass = mass solute x 100
mass of solution

% by mass = 20.0g NaCl x 100

800.0g solution
= 2.50% NaCl Solutions
 Example 2
• If 10.0 grams of NaCl is dissolved in
90.0 grams of water, what is the
concentration using Percent by Mass?

% by mass = mass solute x 100

mass of solution 
% by mass = 10.0g NaCl x 100 = 10.0%NaCl
100.0g solution 

Solutions
 Example 3
• How many grams of sodium bromide are
in 200.0g of solution that is 15.0%
sodium bromide by mass?

% by mass = mass solute x 100

mass of solution 
% by mass = ? g NaBr x 100 = 15.0%NaBr
200.0g solution 

g NaBr = 200.0 x 15.0 = 30 g NaBr

Solutions

100
Solutions
 Gases in Solution
• In general, the
solubility of gases
in water increases
with increasing
mass.
• Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.
Solutions
Gases in Solution

• The solubility of liquids and

solids does not change
appreciably with pressure.
• The solubility of a gas in a
liquid is directly
proportional to its pressure.

Solutions
 Henry’s Law
Sg = kPg
where
• Sg is the solubility of the
gas;
• k is the Henry’s law
constant for that gas in
that solvent;
• Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid. Solutions
 Temperature

• The opposite is true

of gases:
 Carbonated soft
drinks are more
“bubbly” if stored in
the refrigerator.
 Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool lakes.

Solutions
Ways of Expressing Concentrations of
Solutions

• mass percentage • The

• parts per million (ppm) concentration
• parts per billion (ppb) of a solution is
the amount of
• Mole fraction (X) solute present
• molarity (M) in a given
• molality (m) quantity of
solvent or
solution
Solutions
 Mass Percentage
Mass % of A = mass of A in solution  100
total mass of solution

Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA = total moles in solution

• In some applications, one needs the mole fraction of

solvent, not solute—make sure you find the quantity
you need!
 Parts per Million and
Parts per Billion
Parts per Million (ppm)
mass of A in solution
ppm =  106
total mass of solution

Parts per Billion (ppb)

mass of A in solution
ppb =  109
total mass of solution
 Molarity (M)

mol of solute
M=
L of solution

• You will recall this concentration

measure from Chapter 4.
• Because volume is temperature
dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.
Solutions
 Molality (m)

mol of solute
m=
kg of solvent

Because both moles and mass do not

change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperature
dependent.
Solutions
 Solution Stoichiometry (Chapter 4)
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution

What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of

a 2.80 M KI solution?
M KI M KI
volume KI moles KI grams KI

1L 2.80 mol KI 166 g KI

500. mL x x x = 232 g KI
1000 mL 1 L soln 1 mol KI
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution.

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf
 How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 Mf = 0.200 Vf = 0.06 L Vi = ? L

MfVf 0.200 x 0.06

Vi = = = 0.003 L = 3 mL
Mi 4.00

3 mL of acid + 57 mL of water = 60 mL of solution

Changing Molarity to Molality

If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from the
molarity, and vice
versa.

Solutions
 What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH)
solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL?
moles of solute moles of solute
m = M =
mass of solvent (kg) liters of solution

Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)
mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute
= 927 g – 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent
Gravimetric Analysis
1. Dissolve unknown substance in water
2. React unknown with known substance to form a precipitate
3. Filter and dry precipitate
4. Weigh precipitate
5. Use chemical formula and mass of precipitate to determine
amount of unknown ion
Titrations
In a titration a solution of accurately known concentration is
added gradually added to another solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between the two
solutions is complete.

Equivalence point – the point at which the reaction is complete

Indicator – substance that changes color at (or near) the

equivalence point

Slowly add base

to unknown acid
UNTIL
the indicator
changes color
 What volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution is
Required to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4
solution?

WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!

H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4

M rx M
volume acid moles acid moles base volume base
acid coef. base

4.50 mol H2SO4 2 mol NaOH 1000 ml soln

25.00 mL x x x = 158 mL
1000 mL soln 1 mol H2SO4 1.420 mol NaOH