TED 219

TED 219 Materials Technology 2 Credits

Introduction to types of materials for technological applications; appropriate
usage of wood, metals, plastics, rubber, ceramics and glass; solid, liquid and gases
for various technological applications; knowledge of various sources and
properties of ceramics, rubbers and glass; methods of producing ceramics, rubbers
and glass from different sources; different constituents of glass and their different
functions. 30h (T); C

Engineering Materials and their Properties

Introduction
- Material science and engineering plays a vital role in this modern age of science and
technology.
- Various kinds of materials are used in industry, housing, agriculture, and transportation
among others to meet the plant and individual requirements.
- The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great importance for a design
engineer
- A design engineer must be familiar with the effects which the manufacturing processes
and heat treatment have on the properties of the materials
- The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
- Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium etc.
- Non-metals such as glass, rubber, plastic etc.

Physical Properties
- Physical properties are employed to describe the response of a material to
imposed stimuli under conditions in which external forces are not concerned.
- Physical properties include:
a. Dimensions, b. Appearance, c. Colour, d. Density,
e. Melting point, f. Porosity, and g. Structure,

Dimensions
- Dimensions of a material implies it’s size (this include length, breadth, width, and
diameter, among others) and shape (square, circular, channel, angle and section, among
others)
Appearance
- The metals have a shiny appearance, they show a metallic luster.
- Due to their shiny appearance they can be used in jewellery and decorations. -
Particularly gold and silver are widely used for jewellery.
- Metals themselves have different appearances e.g., aluminium is a silvery white metal
whereas copper appears brownish red.
- Lusture, colour and finish of a material is use to describe appearance.
- Lusture is the ability of a material to reflect light when finely polished. It is the
brightness of a surface.
Colour
- The colour of the material is very helpful in identification of a metal.
- The colour of a metal depends upon the wavelength of the light that the material can
absorb.
Density
- The density is the weight of unit volume of a material expressed in metric units.
- Density depends to some extent on the following:
a. Purity of material b. Pour volume. Treatment, the material has received.
- Density helps differentiating between light and heavy metals even if they have same
shape and any outer protective coating.
Melting point
- Melting point of a material is that temperature at which the solid metals change into
molten state.
- One metal can be distinguished from the other on the basis of its melting point.
Porosity
- A metal is said to be porous if it has pores within it.
- Pores can absorb lubricant as in a sintered self-lubricating bearing.
- It is the ratio of total pore volume to bulk volume
Structure
- It means geometric relationships of material components.
- It also implies the arrangement of internal components of matter(electron structure,
crystal structure, and micro structure)

Chemical properties
- A study of chemical properties of materials is necessary because most of engineering
materials when they come in contact with other substances with which they can react,
tend to suffer from chemical deterioration.
- The chemical properties describe the combining tendencies, corrosion characteristics,
reactivity, and solubility, of a substance among others.
- Some of the chemical properties are:
a. corrosion resistance b. chemical composition c. acidity or alkalinity

Corrosion
- It is the deterioration of a material by chemical reaction with its environment.
- Corrosion degrades material properties and reduces economic value of the material.
- Corrosion attacks metals as well as non-metals. Corrosion of concrete by sulphates in soil
is a common problem
Performance requirement
- The material of which a part is composed must be capable of embodying or performing
apart from function without failure for example – a component part to be used in a
furnace must be of that material which can withstand high temperatures.
- While it is not always possible to assign quantitative values to these functional
requirements, they must be related as precisely as possible to specified values of most
closely applicable mechanical, physical, electrical or thermal properties.
Material’s reliability
- When a metal is subjected to a load (force), it is distorted or deformed, no matter how
strong the metal or light the load.
- If the load is small, the distortion will probably disappear when the load is removed. The
intensity, or degree, of distortion is known as strain.
- If the distortion disappears and the metal returns to its original dimensions upon removal
of the load, the strain is called elastic strain. If the distortion disappears and the metal
remains distorted, the strain type is called plastic strain. Strain will be discussed in more
detail in the next chapter.
- Stress is the internal resistance, or counter-force, of a material to the distorting effects of
an external force or load. These counter-forces tend to return the atoms to their normal
positions.
- The total resistance developed is equal to the external load. This resistance is known as
stress.
- Although it is impossible to measure the intensity of this stress, the external load and the
area to which it is applied can be measured.
- Stress can be equated to the load per unit area or the force (F) applied per cross-sectional
area (A) perpendicular to the force as shown in Equation.

where:
= stress (psi or lbs of force per in.2)
F = applied force (lbs of force per in.2)
A = cross-sectional area (in.2)

Types of Stress
- Stresses occur in any material that is subject to a load or any applied force.
- There are many types of stresses, but they can all be generally classified in one of six
categories: residual stresses, structural stresses, pressure stresses, flow stresses, thermal
stresses, and fatigue stresses.
i. Residual stresses
- Residual stresses are due to the manufacturing processes that leave stresses in a material.
- Welding leaves residual stresses in the metals welded.
- Stresses associated with welding are further discussed later in this module.
ii. Structural stresses
- Structural stresses are stresses produced in structural members because of the weights
they support.
- The weights provide the loadings.
- These stresses are found in building foundations and frameworks, as well as in machinery
parts.
iii. Pressure stresses
- Pressure stresses are stresses induced in vessels containing pressurized materials.
- The loading is provided by the same force producing the pressure.
- In a reactor facility, the reactor vessel is a prime example of a pressure vessel.
iv. Flow stresses
- Flow stresses occur when a mass of flowing fluid induces a dynamic pressure on a
conduit wall.
- The force of the fluid striking the wall acts as the load.
- This type of stress may be applied in an unsteady fashion when flow rates fluctuate.
- Water hammer is an example of a transient flow stress.
v. Thermal stresses
- Thermal stresses exist whenever temperature gradients are present in a material.
- Different temperatures produce different expansions and subject materials to internal
stress.
- This type of stress is particularly noticeable in mechanisms operating at high
temperatures that are cooled by a cold fluid.
vi. Fatigue stresses
- Fatigue stresses are due to cyclic application of a stress.
- The stresses could be due to vibration or thermal cycling.

Types of Applied Stress

- Stress intensity within the body of a component is expressed as one of three basic types
of internal load.
- They are known as tensile, compressive, and shear.
- The Figure below illustrates the different types of stress.
- Mathematically, there are only two types of internal load because tensile and compressive
stress may be regarded as the positive and negative versions of the same type of normal
loading.

i. Tensile stress
- Tensile stress is that type of stress in which the two sections of material on either side of a
stress plane tend to pull apart or elongate
ii. Compressive stress
- Compressive stress is the reverse of tensile stress.
- Adjacent parts of the material tend to press against each other through a typical stress
plane
iii. Shear stress
- Shear stress exists when two parts of a material tend to slide across each other in any
typical plane of shear upon application of force parallel to that plane
Types of Applied Stress
Summary
- Stress is the internal resistance of a material to the distorting effects of an external force
or load.
Three types of stress
- Tensile stress is the type of stress in which the two sections of material on either side of a
stress plane tend to pull apart or elongate.
- Compressive stress is the reverse of tensile stress. Adjacent parts of the material tend to
press against each other.
- Shear stress exists when two parts of a material tend to slide across each other upon
application of force parallel to that plane.
- Compressibility is the ability of a material to react to compressive stress or pressure.
- Strain may take two forms; elastic strain and plastic deformation.
i. Elastic strain
- Elastic strain is a transitory dimensional change that exists only while the initiating stress
is applied and disappears immediately upon removal of the stress.
- Elastic strain is also called elastic deformation.
- The applied stresses cause the atoms in a crystal to move from their equilibrium position.
- All the atoms are displaced the same amount and still maintain their relative geometry.
- When the stresses are removed, all the atoms return to their original positions and no
permanent deformation occurs.
ii. Plastic deformation
- Plastic deformation (or plastic strain) is a dimensional change that does not disappear
when the initiating stress is removed. It is usually accompanied by some elastic strain.
- The phenomenon of elastic strain and plastic deformation in a material are called
elasticity and plasticity, respectively.
Physical Property of Materials
i. Strength
- Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation.
- The strength of a component is usually considered based on the maximum load that can
be borne before failure is apparent.
- If under simple tension the permanent deformation (plastic strain) that takes place in a
component before failure, the load-carrying capacity, at the instant of final rupture, will
probably be less than the maximum load supported at a lower strain because the load is
being applied over a significantly smaller cross-sectional area.
- Under simple compression, the load at fracture will be the maximum applicable over a
significantly enlarged area compared with the cross-sectional area under no load.
a. The ultimate tensile strength
- The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum resistance to fracture. It is equivalent
to the maximum load that can be carried by one square inch of cross-sectional area when
the load is applied as simple tension.
b. Yield strength
- A number of terms have been defined for the purpose of identifying the stress at which
plastic deformation begins.
- The value most commonly used for this purpose is the yield strength.
- The yield strength is defined as the stress at which a predetermined amount of permanent
deformation occurs.
ii. Ductility
- Ductility is more commonly defined as the ability of a material to deform easily upon the
application of a tensile force, or as the ability of a material to withstand plastic
deformation without rupture.
- Ductility may also be thought of in terms of bendability and crushability.
- Ductile materials show large deformation before fracture.
- The lack of ductility is often termed Brittleness.
- Usually, if two materials have the same strength and hardness, the one that has the higher
ductility is more desirable.
- The ductility of many metals can change if conditions are altered.
- An increase in temperature will increase ductility.
- A decrease in temperature will cause a decrease in ductility and a change from ductile to
brittle behavior.
- Cold-working also tends to make metals less ductile.
- Cold-working is performed in a temperature region and over a time interval to obtain
plastic deformation, but not relieving the strain hardening.
- Minor additions of impurities to metals, either deliberate or unintentional, can have a
marked effect on the change from ductile to brittle behavior.
- The heating of a cold-worked metal to or above the temperature at which metal atoms
return to their equilibrium positions will increase the ductility of that metal.
- This process is called Annealing.
- Ductility is desirable in the high temperature and high pressure applications in reactor
plants because of the added stresses on the metals.
- High ductility in these applications helps prevent brittle fracture,
iii. Toughness
- The quality known as toughness describes the way a material reacts under sudden
impacts. It is defined as the work required to deform one cubic inch of metal until it
fractures.
iv. Malleability
- Where ductility is the ability of a material to deform easily upon the application of a
tensile force,
- Malleability is the ability of a metal to exhibit large deformation or plastic response when
being subjected to compressive force. Uniform compressive force causes deformation i
v. Hardness
- Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,
penetration, indentation, and scratching.
- Therefore, hardness is important from an engineering standpoint because resistance to
wear by either friction or erosion by steam, oil, and water generally increases with
hardness.
v. Corrosion
- Corrosion is the deterioration of a material due to interaction with its environment.
- It is the process in which metallic atoms leave the metal or form compounds in the
presence of water and gases.
- Metal atoms are removed from a structural element until it fails, or oxides build up inside
a pipe until it is plugged.
- All metals and alloys are subject to corrosion.
- Even the noble metals, such as gold, are subject to corrosive attack in some
environments.
- The corrosion of metals is a natural process.
- Most metals are not thermodynamically stable in the metallic form; they want to corrode
and revert to the more stable forms that are normally found in ores, such as oxides.
- Corrosion is of primary concern in nuclear reactor plants.
- Corrosion occurs continuously throughout the reactor plant, and every metal is subject to
it.
- Even though this corrosion cannot be eliminated, it can be controlled.
- General corrosion involving water and steel generally results from chemical action
where the steel surface oxidizes, forming iron oxide (rust).
- Many of the systems and components in the plant are made from iron.

- Some standard methods associated with material selection that protect against general
corrosion include:
i. The use of corrosion-resistant materials such as stainless steel and nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum alloys. (Keep in mind that the corrosion is electrochemical by nature, and
the corrosion resistance of the stainless steels results from surface oxide films that
interfere with the electrochemical process.)
ii. The use of protective coatings such as paints and epoxies.
iii. The application of metallic and non-metallic coatings or linings to the surface which
protects against corrosion, but allows the material to retain its structural strength (for
example, a carbon steel pressure vessel with stainless steel cladding as a liner).
Properties of Metals
As a matter of fact, the following properties of a metal are important for determining ad
selecting suitable metal for various jobs. In this respect, the commonly used engineering metals
and their properties are:

i. Physical Properties: These include shape, size, colour, luster, porosity, structure and
finish among others.
ii. Mechanical Properties: These include elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness,
hardness, toughness, stiffness, resilience, creep, strength, malleability, and
Machineability
iii. Thermal properties: These include specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal
expansion, latent heat, thermal stresses and thermal stock among others.
iv. Electrical Properties: These include conductivity, resistivity, relative capacity, dielectric
strength and so on.
v. Magnetic Properties: These include magnetic and non magnetic and so on.
vi. Chemical Properties: These include atomic weight, equivalent weight, molecule
weight, acidity, chemical composition and corrosion among others.
vii. Mechanical Properties: The mechanical properties of a metal are those properties with
completely define its behavior under action of external loads or forces.

1. Physical Properties
The physical properties of metals are discussed under density, color, size and shape
(dimensions), specific gravity, porosity, and luster among others.
a. Density
- The density is the weight of unit volume of a material expressed in metric units.
- Mass per unit volume is known as density.
- In metric system, its unit is kg/mm3.
- Density depends to some extent on the following:
i. Purity of material ii. Pour volume iii. Treatment, the material has received.
- Density helps differentiating between light and heavy metals even if they have same
shape and any outer protective coating.
- Because of very low density, aluminium and magnesium are preferred in aeronautic and
transportation applications.
b. Melting Point
- Melting point of a material is that temperature at which the solid metals change into
molten state.
- One metal can be distinguished from the other on the basis of its melting point.
- The melting point of metal is high.

c. Colour
It deals with the quality of light as reflected on the surface of metal.
- The colour of a metal depends upon the wavelength of the light that the material can
absorb.
d. Lusture
- Lusture is the ability of a material to reflect light when finely polished.
- It is the brightness of a surface
- Most metals have a shiny appearance and they show a metallic luster.
- Due to this shiny appearance,some metals can be used in jewellery and decorations.
- Particularly gold and silver are widely used for jewellery.

e. Size and shape

Dimensions of any metal reflect the size and shape of the material. Length, width, height,
depth, curvature diameter etc. determines the size. Shape specifies the rectangular,
square, circular or any other section.
f. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of any metal is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the metal to the
mass of the same volume of water at a specified temperature.
g. Porosity
A material is referred to as porous or permeable if it has pores within it.
- Pores can absorb lubricant as in a sintered self-lubricating bearing.
h.
- All metals except Mercury exist in the solid form at room temperature.
- Therefore, they retain their shapes under normal conditions.

The table below shows the important physical properties of some pure metals.
2. Chemical Properties
- The study of chemical properties of materials is necessary because most engineering
materials, when they come in contact with other substances with which they can react,
suffer from chemical deterioration. Corrosion on the surface of metals is in this category.
- The chemical properties describe the combining tendencies, corrosion characteristics,
reactivity, and solubility, of a substance among others.
- Some of the chemical properties are:
a. corrosion resistance b. chemical composition c. acidity or alkalinity
i. Corrosion
- It is the gradual deterioration of a material by chemical reaction with its environment.
- Corrosion degrades material properties and reduces economic value of the material.
- Corrosion attacks metals as well as non-metals.
- Corrosion of concrete by sulphates in soils is also a common problem
ii. Chemical Composition
a. Different metals react differently with water.
- Sodium reacts violently with water forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogran. -
Magnesium reacts mildly with water but vigorously with steam.
- Zinc and iron react mildly with steam.
- Copper, gold and silver do not react with water at all.
- Most metals, on reacting with water produce hydroxide.
b. Metals when burned in the presence of oxygen, they combine with oxygen toform
metallic oxides which are basic in nature.
iii. Acidity or Alkalinity
- Metals differ in their reactivity with acids.
- Most metals react with acids toproduce salts and hydrogen.
- Metals replace other metals.
- When an iron nail is placed in a test tubecontaining copper sulfate.
- The nail is coated with a layer of copper while theblue copper sulfate solution has turned
greenish.
- The green solution is asolution of iron sulfate.

3. Thermal Properties
The study of thermal properties is essential in order to know the response of metal to
thermal changes that is, lowering or raising of temperature. Categories of thermal
properties exhibited by metals are thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, specific heat,
melting point, thermal diffusivity. Some important properties are defined as under.
Melting Point
Melting point is the temperature at which a pure metal or compound changes its shape
from solid to liquid. It is called as the temperature at which the liquid and solid are in
equilibrium. It can also be said as the transition point between solid and liquid phases.
Melting temperature depends on the nature of inter-atomic and intermolecular bonds.
Therefore, higher melting point is exhibited by those materials possessing stronger bonds.
Covalent, ionic, metallic and molecular types of solids have decreasing order of bonding
 strength and melting point. Melting point of mild steel is 1500°C, of copper is 1080°C
and of Aluminium is 650°C.
4. Electrical Properties
The various electrical properties of materials are conductivity, temperature coefficient of
resistance, dielectric strength, resistivity, and thermoelectricity. These properties are
defined as under.
a. Conductivity
Conductivity is defined as the ability of the material to pass electric current through it
easily i.e. the material which is conductive will provide an easy path for the flow of
electricity through it.
b. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
It is generally termed as to specify the variation of resistivity with temperature.
c. Dielectric Strength
It means insulating capacity of material at high voltage. A material having high dielectric
strength can withstand for longer time for high voltage across it before it conducts the
current through it.
d. Resistivity
It is the property of a material by which it resists the flow of electricity through it.
e. Thermoelectricity
If two dissimilar metals are joined and then this junction is heated, a small voltage (in the
milli-volt range) is produced, and this is known as thermoelectric effect. It is the base of
the thermocouple. Thermo -couples are prepared using the properties of metals.

5. Mechanical Properties of Metals

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of
the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal
include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness,
resilience, creep and hardness. These properties are discussed as follows:
i. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied
force is called stress.
ii. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
iii. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in
tools and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.
iv. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images
on coins and in ornamental work.
v. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The
ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice (in order
of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
 Note:The ductility of a material is commonly measured by means of percentage
elongation and percentage reduction in area in a tensile test.
vi. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to
tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle
material.
vii. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to
be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of
diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
viii. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured
by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being
stressed up to the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock
and impact loads.
ix. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of
ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to
remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of
the material. It may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.
x. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic
limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
xi. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period
of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
xii. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the
yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure is
caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of
microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods,
springs and gears among others.
xiii. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another
metal. The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method
of making the test. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests:
a. Brinell hardness test b. Rockwell hardness test,
c. Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
d. Shore scleroscope.
xiv. Proportional limit: It is defined as the maximum stress under which a material will
maintain a perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress. Though its value is difficult to
measure, yet it can be used as the important applications for building precision
instruments and springs among others.
xv. Elastic limit: Many metals can be put under stress slightly above the proportional limit
without taking a permanent set. The greatest stress that a material can endure without
 taking up some permanent set is called elastic limit. Beyond this limit, the metal does not
regain its original form and permanent set will occurs.
xvi. Yield point: At a specific stress, ductile metals particularly ceases, offering resistance
totensile forces. This means, the metals flow and a relatively large permanent set takes
place without a noticeable increase in load. This point is called yield point. Certain metals
such as mild steel exhibit a definite yield point, in which case the yield stress is simply
the stress at this point.
xvii. Metals are generallySonorous.
- That is they make a ringing sound when struck.
- Therefore, they are used for making bells.
- Metal wires are used in musicalinstruments.

Ferrous Materials and Non-Ferrous

Metals and Alloys
Introduction
Ferrous materials/metals may be defined as those metals whose main constituent is iron
such as pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron, steel and their alloys. The principal raw materials for
ferrous metals is pig iron. Ferrous materials are usually stronger and harder and are used in daily
life products. Ferrous material possess a special property that their characteristics can be altered
by heat treatment processes or by addition of small quantity of alloying elements. Ferrous metals
possess different physical properties according to their carbon content.
The principal raw material for all ferrous metals is pig iron which is obtained by smelting
iron ore with coke and limestone, in the blast furnace. The principal iron ores with their metallic
contents are shown in the following table:
Iron Ores and Other Raw Materials
The principal ore used in the production of iron and steel is hematite (Fe2O3). Other iron
ores include magnetite (Fe3O4), siderite (FeCO3), and limonite (Fe2O3-xH2O, in which x is
typically around 1.5). Iron ores contain from50% to around 70% iron, depending on grade
(hematite is almost 70% iron). In addition, scrap iron and steel are widely used today as raw
materials in iron- and steelmaking.

Production of Iron Using Blast Furnace

Input
Iron ore: rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted
Limestone: it gathers the impurities in the iron ore to it and forms a lighter liquid that floats on
top of the molten iron
Coke: it burns causing an intense heat which removes the oxygen from the iron ore thus
allowing
the molten metal to trickle to the bottom of the furnace
Output
Molten iron: it is poured into molds to form what is called “pig iron” billets
Slag: it is basically metal oxides and non-iron impurities and it is removed from the top
Note: some slag remains and combines with the molten iron causing the presence of non-
metallic inclusions in the pig iron billets.
 Pig iron is not used as is, it is melted again to reduce its carbon content and it is combined
with other elements (silicon, nickel, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, etc.) to give the
desired material (Cast Iron, Steel, Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel, Alloy steel, etc.). After pig iron
is molten again and other alloying elements are added it is poured into relatively large molds to
form Ingots

An ingot is a material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further
processing. Ingot is the starting raw metal for all metal working process. Molten metal from the
furnace is taken and poured into metallic moulds and allowed to cool or solidify. The cooled
solid metal mass is then taken out of the mould. This solid metal is referred to as Ingot. This
Ingot is later on converted to other forms by mechanical working.

Iron and Steel

The ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all varieties of iron and steel. Most
common engineering materials are ferrous materials which are alloys of iron. Ferrous means
iron. Iron is the name given to pure ferrite Fe, as well as to fused mixtures of this ferrite with
large amount of carbon (may be 1.8%), these mixtures are known as pig iron and cast iron.
Primarily pig iron is produced from the iron ore in the blast furnace from which cast iron,
wrought iron and steel can be produced.

Classification of Carbon Steels

Plain carbon steel is that steel in which alloying element is carbon. Practically besides
iron and carbon four other alloying elements are always present but their content is very small
that they do not affect physical properties. These are sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and
manganese. Although the effect of sulphur and phosphorus on properties of steel is detrimental,
but their percentage is very small. Sulphur exists in steel as iron sulphide which produces red
shortness or manganese sulphide which does affect its properties. Forging dies. Likewise for
production of cold chisels, punches and dies. Springs, broaches and reamers can be produced for
steel containing carbon. As the percentage of carbon further increases, it can be used for
production of milling cutters, anvils, taps, drills, files, razors, metal cutting tools for lathes,
shapers, planner and drawing dies.

Iron
Pure iron rarely exists outside of the laboratory. Iron is produced by reducing iron ore to
pig iron by using a blast furnace. From pig iron, many other types of iron and steel are produced
by the addition or deletion of carbon and alloys. The following paragraphs discuss the different
types of iron and steel that can be made from iron ore.

Pig Iron
Pig iron is about 93% iron, from 3% to 5% carbon, with various amounts of other
elements. Pig iron is comparatively weak and brittle; therefore, it has a limited use as is (cast iron
pipe and some fittings and valves), and approximately ninety percent of it is refined to produce
steel.

Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is almost pure iron. It is made from pig iron in a puddling furnace and has a
carbon content of less than 0.08 percent. Carbon and other elements present in pig iron are taken
out, leaving almost pure iron. In the process of manufacture, some slag is mixed with iron to
form a fibrous structure in which long stringers of slag, running lengthwise, are mixed with long
threads of iron. Because of the presence of slag, wrought iron resists corrosion and oxidation
which cause rusting. The chemical analyses of wrought iron and mild steel are just about the
same. The difference comes from the properties controlled during the manufacturing process.
Wrought iron can be gas and arc welded, machined, plated, and easily formed; however, it has a
low hardness and a low fatigue strength.
Cast Iron
Cast iron is a manmade alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon. A portion of the carbon exists
as free carbon or graphite. Cast iron is any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy, with
most cast irons ranging between 2.1% to 4% by weight. Cast iron has a high compressive
strength and good wear resistance; however, it lacks ductility, malleability, and impact strength.
Alloying it with nickel, chromium, molybdenum, silicon, or vanadium improves toughness,
tensile strength, and hardness. A malleable cast iron is produced through a prolonged annealing
process.

Ingot Iron
Ingot iron is a commercially pure (99.85% iron), easily formed iron, with good ductility
and corrosion resistance. The chemical analysis and properties of ingot iron are practically the
same as the lowest carbon steel. The lowest carbon steel, known as dead-soft, has about 0.06%
more carbon than ingot iron. Carbon content in iron is considered an impurity; carbon content in
steel is considered an alloying element. The primary use for ingot iron is for galvanized and
enameled sheet.

Steel
Steel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1%
by weight, depending on the grade. Steel contains less carbon than cast iron (2.1% to 4%), but
considerably more than wrought iron (less than 0.08%). Basic carbon steels are alloyed with
other elements, such as chromium and nickel, to increase certain physical properties of the metal.
Steel can be machined, welded, and forged, all to varying degrees, depending on the type of
steel.
Steels and other metals are classified based on method of manufacture, method of
shaping, method of heat treatment, properties, intended use, and chemical composition. In
addition, certain steels and other metals are often referred to by trade names. Probably the most
reasonable way to classify steels is by their chemical composition. Steels that derive their
properties primarily from the presence of carbon are referred to merely as “steels” or sometimes
as “plain carbon steels.” Steels that derive their properties primarily from the presence of some
alloying element other than carbon are referred to as “alloys” or “alloy steels.”

Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steel (0.05% to 0.30% carbon) is tough and ductile, and can be rolled,
punched, sheared, and worked when either hot or cold. It is easily machined and can readily be
welded by all methods. It does not respond to heat-treating; however, it can easily be case
hardened.

Medium-Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel (0.30% to 0.45% carbon) is strong and hard but cannot be welded
or worked as easily as the low-carbon steels. It may be heat-treated after fabrication. It is used
for general machining and forging of parts that require surface hardness and strength, such as
crane hooks, axles, shafts, setscrews, and so on. Medium-carbon steel is made in bar form in the
cold-rolled or the normalized and annealed condition. During welding, the weld zone will
become hardened if cooled rapidly and must be stress-relieved after welding.
High-Carbon Steel/Very High-Carbon Steel
High-carbon steel (0.45% to 0.75% carbon) and very high-carbon steel (0.75% to 1.70%
carbon) respond well to heat treatment and can be welded with difficulty, but the welding must
be done using specific processes due to the hardening effect of heat at the welded joint. This steel
is used for the manufacture of drills, taps, dies, springs, and other machine tools and hand tools
that are heat-treated after fabrication to develop the hard structure necessary to withstand high
shear stress and wear. It is manufactured in bar, sheet, and wire forms, and in the annealed or
normalized condition in order to be suitable for machining before heat treatment. Tool steel
(0.70% to 1.40% carbon) refers to a special variety of carbon and alloy steels particularly well
suited to be made into tools.
Tool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice of grade
depends on, among other things, whether a keen cutting edge is necessary, abrasion resistance is
paramount, or the tool must withstand impact loading encountered with such tools as axes,
pickaxes, and quarrying implements. Tool steel is used to manufacture chisels, shear blades,
cutters, large taps, woodturning tools, blacksmith’s tools, razors, and similar parts where high
hardness is required to maintain a sharp cutting edge. It is very difficult to weld due to the high
carbon content. A spark test shows a moderately large volume of white sparks having many fine,
repeating bursts.

Low-Alloy, High-Strength, Tempered Structural Steel

This is a special low-carbon steel, containing specific small amounts of alloying
elements, that is quenched and tempered to get a yield strength greater than 50,000 psi and
tensile strengths of 70,000 to 120,000 psi. Structural members made from these high-strength
steels may have smaller cross-sectional areas than common structural steels and still have equal
or greater strength. Additionally, these steels are normally more corrosion and abrasion resistant.
High-strength steels are covered by ASTM specifications.

Non Ferrous Metals

All metallic materials that do not have iron (Fe) as their major ingredient are called
non-ferrous metals

Copper
Copper Production
In ancient times, copper was available in nature as a free element. Today these natural
deposits are more difficult to find, and copper is now extracted from ores that are mostly
sulfides, such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). The ore is crushed, concentrated by flotation, and then
smelted (melted or fused, often with an associated chemical reaction to separate a metal from its
ore). The resulting copper is called blister copper, which is between 98% and 99% pure.
Electrolysis is used to obtain higher purity levels suitable for commercial use.

Copper
The crude form of copper extracted from its ores through series of processes contains
68% purity known as Blister copper. By electrolytic refining process, highly pure (99.9%)
copper which is re-melted and casted into suitable shapes. Copper is a corrosion resistant metal
of an attractive reddish brown colour.
Properties of Copper
i. High Thermal Conductivity
ii. High Electrical Conductivity
iii. Good Corrosion Resistance
iv. High Ductility
v. It is malleable,
vi. It is hard,
vii. It is tough,
viii. It is strong,
ix. It has a very high wear resistant,
x. It is difficult to machine.
xi. It also has high-tensile strength,
xii. Fatigue strength

Aluminium
Aluminium is white metal which is produced by electrical processes from clayey mineral
known as bauxite. However, this aluminium ore bauxite is available in India in plenty and we
have a thriving aluminium industry.

Properties and Uses

i. It is corrosion resistant.
ii. It is very good conductor of heat
iii. It is very good conductor of electricity.
iv. It possesses high ductility
v. It is light weight so widely utilized in aircraft industry.

Aluminum Production
The principal aluminum ore is bauxite, which consists largely of hydrated aluminum
oxide (Al2O3-H2O) and other oxides. Extraction of the aluminum from bauxite can be
summarized in three steps:
i. washing and crushing the ore into fine powders;
ii. the Bayer process, in which the bauxite is converted to pure alumina (Al2O3); and
iii. electrolysis, in which the alumina is separated into aluminum and oxygen gas (O 2). The
Bayer process, named after the German chemist who developed it, involves solution of bauxite
powders in aqueous caustic soda (NaOH) under pressure, followed by precipitation of pure Al 2O3
from solution. Alumina is commercially important in its own right as an engineering ceramic.
Electrolysis to separate Al2O3 into its constituent elements requires dissolving the precipitate in a
molten bath of cryolite (Na3AlF6) and subjecting the solution to direct current between the plates
of an electrolytic furnace. The electrolyte dissociates to form aluminum at the cathode and
oxygen gas at the anode.

Lead
Lead is the heaviest of the common metal. Lead is extracted from its ore known as
galena. It is bluish grey in colour and dull lusture which goes very dull on exposure to air.
Properties and Uses
i. Its specific gravity is 7.1 and melting point is 360°C.
ii. It is resistant to corrosion and many chemicals do not react with it (even acids).
iii. It is soft, heavy and malleable, can be easily worked and shaped.
iv. Lead is utilized as alloying element in producing solders and plumber’s solders.
v. It is alloyed with brass as well as steel to improve their machinability.
vi. It is utilized in manufacturing of water pipes, coating for electrical cables, acid tanks
and roof covering etc.

Tin; It is a brilliant white metal with yellowish tinge. Melting point of tin is 240°C.

Properties and Uses

i. Tin is malleable and ductile, it can be rolled into very thin sheets.
ii. It is used for tinning of copper and brass utensils and copper wire before its
conversion into cables.
iii. It is useful as a protective coating for iron and steel since it does corrode in dry or wet
atmosphere.
iv. It is utilized for making important alloys such as fine solder and moisture proof
packing with thin tin sheets.

Zinc
The chief ores of zinc are blende (ZnS) and calamine (ZnCO3). Zinc is a fairly heavy,
bluish-white metal principally utilized in view of its low cost, corrosion resistance and alloying
characteristics. Melting point of zinc is 420°C and it boils at 940°C.

Properties and Uses

i. High corrosion resistance: Widely used as protective coating on iron and steel.
Coating may be provided by dip galvanizing or electroplating.
ii. High fluidity and low melting point: Most suitable metal for pressure die casting
generally in the form of alloy.
iii. When rolled into sheets, zinc is utilized for roof covering and for providing a damp
proof non-corrosive lining to containers.
iv. The galvanized wires, nails, etc. are produced by galvanizing technique and zinc is
also used in manufacture of brasses.

Nickel: About at least 85% of all nickel production is obtained from sulphide ores.

Properties and Uses

i. Pure nickel is tough, silver coloured metal, harder than copper having some but less
ductility but of about same strength.
ii. It is plated on steel to provide a corrosion resistance surface or layer.
iii. Widely used as an alloying element with steel. Higher proportions are advantageously
added in the production of steel such as monel or in conel.
iv. It possesses good resistance to both acids and alkalis regarding corrosion so widely
utilized in food processing equipment.
Nickel Production
The most important ore of nickel is pentlandite ((Ni, Fe)9S8). To extract the nickel, the
ore is first crushed and ground with water. Flotation techniques are used to separate the sulfides
from other minerals mixed with the ore. The nickel sulfide is then heated to burn off some of the
sulfur, followed by smelting to remove iron and silicon. Further refinement is accomplished in a
Bessemer-style converter to yield high-concentration nickel sulfide (NiS). Electrolysis is then
used to recover high-purity nickel from the compound. Ores of nickel are sometimes mixed with
copper ores, and the recovery technique described here also yields copper in these cases.

Magnesium
Principal ores of magnesium are magnesite, carnallite and dolomite. Magnesium is
extracted by electrolytic process.

Properties and Uses:

i. It is the lightest of all metals weighing around two-thirds of aluminium.
ii. The tensile strength of cast metal is the same as that of ordinary cast aluminium, that
is, 90 MPa.
iii. The tensile strength of rolled annealed magnesium is same as that of good quality cast
iron.
iv. Magnesium can be easily formed, drawn forged and machined with high accuracy.
v. In powdered form it is likely to burn, in that situation adequate fire protection
measures should be strictly observed.
vi. Its castings are pressure tight and achieve good surface finish. Magnesium castings
include motor car gearbox, differential housing and portable tools.

Magnesium Production
Sea water contains about 0.13% MgCl2, and this is the source of most commercially
produced magnesium. To extract Mg, a batch of sea water is mixed with milk of lime–calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). The resulting reaction precipitates magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) that
settles and is removed as a slurry. The slurry is then filtered to increase Mg(OH)2 content and
then mixed with hydrochloric acid (HCl), which reacts with the hydroxide to form concentrated
MgCl2—much more concentrated than the original sea water. Electrolysis is used to decompose
the salt into magnesium (Mg) and chlorine gas (Cl2). The magnesium is then cast into ingots for
subsequent processing. The chlorine is recycled to form more MgCl2.

Vanadium
It occurs in conjunction with iron pyrite, free sulphur and carbonaceous matter.

Properties and Uses:

i. It is silvery white in colour.
ii. Its specific gravity is 5.67.
iii. Its melting point is 1710°C.
iv. When heated to a suitable temperature it can be hammered into any shape or drawn
into wires.
 v. It is used in manufacture of alloy steels.
vi. Vanadium forms non-ferrous alloys of copper and aluminium from which excellent
castings can be produced.

Antimony
Chief ore of antimony is stibnite. To a small extent, antimony is obtained as a by-product
in refining of other metals such as lead, copper silver and zinc.

Properties and Uses

i. It is silvery white, hard, highly crystalline and so brittle that it may be readily
powdered
ii. Its specific gravity is 6.63 and melting point is 630°C.
iii. It is generally used as an alloying element with most of heavy metals.
iv. Lead, tin and copper are the metals which are most commonly alloyed with antimony.

Cadmium
It is obtained commercially as a by-product in the metallurgy of zinc and to some extent
of lead.

Properties and Uses

i. hite metal with bluish tinge, capable of taking a high polish.
ii. Its specific gravity is 8.67 and melts at 321°C.
iii. It is slightly harder than tin but softer than zinc.
iv. It is malleable and ductile and can be readily rolled and drawn into wires.
It is chiefly utilized in antifriction alloys for bearings. It is also used as rust proof coating for
iron and steel. Components of automobiles and refrigerator such as nuts, bolts and trimmings,
locks and wire products are plated with it.

Alloys of Copper
Copper alloys are among the best conductors of heat and electricity and they have good
corrosion resistance. The common types of copper alloys are brasses and bronzes. The various
alloys of copper are discussed as follows:

Brass
All brasses are basically alloys of copper and zinc. Commercially there are two main
varieties of brasses:
a. Alfa brass: Contains upto 36% Zn and rest copper for cold working.
b. Alfa-Beta brass: Contains 36 to 45% Zn and remainder is copper for hot working.
The tensile strength and ductility of brass both increase with increase in content of Zn up to
30% zinc. With further increase in zinc content beyond 30%, the tensile strength continues to
increase up to 45% of Zn, but ductility of brasses drops significantly. β-phase is less ductile than
α-phase but it is harder and stronger. Thus, there are various types of brasses depending upon
proportion of copper and zinc. Fundamentally brass is a binary alloy of copper with as much as
50% zinc. Various classes of brasses such as cartridge brass, Muntz metal leaded brass,
Admirality brass, naval brass and nickel brass depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc
plus third alloying metal are available for various uses. Suitable type of brasses can undergo the
processes of casting, hot forging, cold forging, cold rolling into sheets, drawing into wires and
extrusion for obtaining requisite special cross-section bars. The melting point of brass varies
according to its composition but most of the brasses in the common range liquefy between
temperatures of 840°C to 960°C. By adding small quantities of other elements, the properties of
brass may be greatly affected. For example, addition of 1 to 2% zinc improves the machinability
of brass. Brass has a greater strength than that of copper but has a lower thermal and electrical
conductivity. Brasses possess very good corrosion resistance and can be easily soldered. Brasses
are used in hydraulic fittings, pump linings, utensils, bearings and bushes among others.

Bronze
The alloy of copper and tin are usually termed bronzes. The useful range of composition
is 75 to 95% copper and remainder tin. In general, it possesses superior mechanical properties
and corrosion resistance to brass. The alloy can be easily cold rolled into wire, rods and sheets.
With increase in tin content, the strength of this alloy and its corrosion resistance increases. It is
then known as hot working bronze. Bronze is generally utilized in hydraulic fittings, bearings,
bushes, utensils, sheets, rods and many other stamped and drawn products. The generally used
bronzes are as follows:
i. Phosphor bronze: When bronze contains phosphorus, it is known as phosphor
bronze.
Phosphorus present in such alloy increases the strength, ductility and soundness of castings.
Various compositions of this alloy are available for different applications. The composition of
the alloy varies according to whether it is to be forged, wrought or cast. A common type of
phosphor bronze has the following composition as per Indian standards. Copper = 93.6%, tin =
9%, and phosphorus = 0.1 to 0.3%. The alloy possesses good wearing qualities and high
elasticity. The alloy is resistant to salt water corrosion. Cast phosphor bronze is utilized for
production of bearings and gears. Bearings of bronze contain 10% tin and small addition of lead.
This is also used in making gears, nuts, for machine lead screws, springs, pump parts, linings and
many other such applications.
ii. Gun metal: Gun metal contains 2% zinc, 10% tin and 88% copper. It is a very
famous
composition. Sometimes very small amount of lead is also added to improve castability and
machinability. The presence of zinc improve its fluidity. This bronze is used for bearing bushes,
glands, pump valves and boiler fittings to mention few.
iii. Silicon bronze: Silicon bronze has an average composition of 3 per cent silicon, 1
per
cent manganese and rest copper. It possesses good general corrosion resistance of copper with
higher strength and toughness. It can be cast rolled, stamped, forged and pressed either hot or
cold and can be welded by all the usual methods. Silicon bronze is widely utilized for parts of
boilers, tanks, stoves or where high strength as well as corrosion resistance is required.
iv. Bell metal: This alloy contains 20 to 21% tin and rest copper. It is hard and resistant
to surface wear. It can be readily cast, is generally utilized for casting bells, gongs and utensils
among others
v. Manganese Bronze: It is an alloy of copper, zinc and manganese. It contains 55 to
60% copper, 40% zinc, with 3.5% manganese. This alloy is highly resistant to corrosion. It is
stronger and harder than phosphor bronze. It has poor response to cold working but can be easily
hot worked. It is generally utilized for producing bushes, plungers, feed pumps and rods among
others. Worm gears are frequently made of manganese bronze.
vi. Muntz Metal: The composition of this alloy is 60 per cent copper and 40 per cent
zinc. Sometimes a small quantity of lead is also added. This alloy is stronger, harder and more
ductile than normal brass. While hot working between 700°C to 750, it responds excellently for
process but does not respond to cold working. This alloy is utilized for a wide variety of small
components of machines, bolts, rods, tubes, electrical equipment as well as ordinance works. It is
widely employed in producing such articles which are required to resist wear.

Alloys of Aluminium
Aluminium may be alloyed with one or more alloying elements such as copper,
manganese,
magnesium, silicon and nickel. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements converts the
soft and weak aluminium into hard and strong metal, while it retains its light weight. The main
alloys of aluminium are: Duralumin, Y-alloy, Magnalium and Hindalium which are discussed as
follows:
i. Duralumin: A famous alloy of aluminium containing 4% copper, 0.5% manganese,
0.5% magnesium and a trace of iron with remainder as aluminium is known as duralumnin. It
possesses high strength comparable with mild steel and low specific gravity. However, its
corrosion resistance is much lower as compared with pure aluminium. The strength of this alloy
increases significantly when heat treated and allowed to age for 3 to 4 weeks it will be hardened.
The phenomenon is termed age hardening. To improve upon the corrosion resistance of it, a thin
film of aluminium is rolled on the duralumin sheets. These sheets are known as Alclad by trade
name
and are widely used in aircraft industry. It is widely utilized in wrought conditions for forging,
stamping, bars, tubes and rivets. It can be worked in hot condition at 500°C. However, after
forging and annealing it could also be cold worked. Due to light weight and high strength this
alloy may be used in automobile industry.
ii. Y-Alloy: It is also known as copper-aluminium alloy. The addition of copper to pure
aluminium improves its strength and machinability. Y-alloy contains 93% aluminium, 2%
copper, 1% nickel and magnesium. This alloy is heat treated as well as age 38 Manufacturing
Processes
hardened just like duralumin. A heat treatment of Y-alloy castings, consisting of quenching in
boiling water from 510°C and then aging for 5 days develops very good mechanical
characteristics in them. Since Y-alloy has better strength at elevated temperature than duralumin
therefore it is much used in aircraft cylinder heads and piston. It is also used in strip and sheet
form.
iii. Magnalium: It is produced by melting the aluminium 2 to 10% magnesium in a vacuum
and then cooling it in vacuum or under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres. About 1.75%
copper is also added to it. Due to its light weight and good mechanical characteristics, it is
mainly used for aircraft and automobile components.
iv. Hindalium: It is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium with small quantity of
chromium. It is manufactured as rolled product in 16 gauge mainly used in manufacture of
anodized utensils.

Alloys of Nickel
i. German silver: The composition of this alloy is 60% Cu, 30% Ni and 10% zinc. It
displays silvery appearance and is very ductile and malleable. It is utilized for electrical contacts,
casting of high quality valves, taps and costume jewellery. It is also used in producing electrical
wires.
ii. Monel metal: It contains 68% Ni, 30% Cu, 1% iron and remainder small additions of Mn
and other elements. It is corrosion resistant and possesses good mechanical properties and
maintains them at elevated temperatures.
iii. Nichrome: It is an alloy of nickel and chromium which is utilized as heat resistant
electrical wire in electrical applicances such as furnaces, geysers and electric iron.
iv. Inconel and incolony: These alloys principally contain, Ni, Cr, Fe, Mo, Ti and very
small proportions of carbon. These are used as high temperature alloys. Inconel does not respond
to heat treatment.

Bearing Materials
A bearing material should possess the following characteristics:
i. It should possess enough compressive strength to provide adequate load carrying
capacity.
ii. It should possess good plasticity to negate small variations in alignment and fitting.
iii. Its wear resistance should be adequate to maintain a specified fit.
iv. The coefficient of friction of the bearing material should be low to avoid excessive
heating.
Some significant bearing metals are as follows:
i. Babbitt’s metal: It is utilized for production of heavy duty bearings. It is white in colour
containing 88% tin, 8% antimony and 4% copper. It is a soft material with a low coefficient