Module

2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

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 Lecture
1
Physical and Mechanical Properties of
Engineering Materials

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Instructional objectives
At the end of this lecture, the student should be able to appreciate
(a) general classification of engineering materials, and
(b) physical and mechanical properties of engineering materials

Engineering Materials
Materials play an important role in the construction and manufacturing of various parts and
components. An appropriate selection of a material for a given application adds to economy,
working and life of the final part and component.

Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering materials can be broadly classified as metals such as iron, copper, aluminum and
their alloys, and non-metals such as ceramics (e.g. alumina and silica carbide), polymers (e.g.
polyvinyle chloride or PVC), natural materials (e.g. wood, cotton, flax, etc.), composites (e.g.
carbon fibre reinforced polymer or CFRP, glass fibre reinforced polymer or GFRP, metal matrix
composites or MMC, Concrete, Ceramic matrix composites, Engineering wood such as plywood,
oriented strand board, wood plastic composite etc.) and foams.

Properties of Engineering Materials

Material property is the identity of material, which describes its state (physical, chemical) and
behavior under different conditions. The material properties can be broadly categorized as
physical, chemical, mechanical and thermal.
The physical properties define the physical state of material and are independent of its chemical
nature. The physical properties of engineering materials include appearance, texture, mass,
density, Melting point, boiling point, viscosity, etc. The chemical properties describe the
reactivity of a material and are always mentioned in terms of the rate at which the material
changes its chemical identity, e.g. corrosion rate, oxidation rate, etc. The mechanical properties
describe the resistance against deformation, in particular, under static and dynamic mechanical

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loading condition. The mechanical properties include elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength, hardness and toughness, etc. The thermal properties
describe material behavior under thermal loading and include thermal conductivity, specific heat,
thermal diffusivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, etc. For a given application or service, an
engineering material is selected based on a set of appropriate material properties, often referred
to as attributes, that would be requisite to sustain various expected loads. Figure 2.1.1 depicts a
schematic representation of material family, which is utilized in selection of materials for a target
application.

Figure 2.1.1 Organized classification of materials and properties [1]

Physical Properties
Physical properties describe the state of material, which is observable or measurable. Color,
texture, density, melting point, boiling point, etc. are some of the commonly known physical
properties.
 Color: Represents reflective properties of substance
 Density: Amount of mass contained by unit volume of material. The higher the density
the heavier is the substance. (SI unit: kg/m3)

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  Melting point: Melting point is the temperature at which material changes its state from
solid to liquid. (SI units: K)
 Boiling point: Boiling point is the temperature at which material changes its state from
liquid to gaseous. (SI units: K)

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are the measure of reactivity of a material in the presence of another
substance or environment which imposes change in the material composition. These properties
are always mentioned in term of the rate of change in its composition. Corrosion rate, oxidation
rate, etc. are some of the chemical properties of material.
 Corrosion rate: Corrosion rate is measured in terms of corrosion penetration for given
period of time at specific surrounding condition. Corrosion rate is given by length of
penetration per unit time. (Units: mm/year)
 Oxidation rate: Oxidation rate is measured in terms of amount of material consumed
forming oxide or amount of oxide scale formed for given period of time at specific
surrounding temperature. Oxidation rate is given by amount of mass of material lost or
thickness of scale formed during oxidation per unit time. (Units: gms/min or μm/min).

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties describe the behavior of material in terms of deformation and resistance to
deformation under specific mechanical loading condition. These properties are significant as they
describe the load bearing capacity of structure. Elastic modulus, strength, hardness, toughness,
ductility, malleability are some of the common mechanical properties of engineering materials.
Every material shows a unique behavior when it is subjected to loading. Figure 2.1.2 shows a
typical stress-strain curve of C-steel under uniaxial tensile loading. Point ‘A’ indicates the
proportional limit. Stress strain behavior is linear only up to this point. Point ‘B’ represents the
point at which the material starts yielding. Between point A and B, the stress strain behavior is
not linear, though it is in elastic region. Point ‘C’ is referred to the upper yield point. The
material behavior after point ‘D’ is highly nonlinear in nature. Point ‘E’ is the maximum stress
that the material can withstand and the point ‘F’ schematically indicates the point of rupture.

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 Figure 2.1.2 Stress-strain curve for carbon-steel [3]

Stresses computed on the basis of the original area of the specimen are often referred to as the
conventional or nominal stresses. Alternately, the stresses computed on the basis of the actual
area of the specimen provide the so called true stress. Within the elastic limit, the material
returns to its original dimension on removal of the load. The elastic modulus is referred to the
slope of the stress-strain behavior in the elastic region and its SI unit is conceived as N.m-2. The
elastic modulus is also referred to as the constant of proportionality between stress and strain
according to Hooke’s Law. Beyond the elastic limit, the materials retains a permanent,
irreversible strain (or deformation) even after the load is removed. The modulus of rigidity of a
material is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within the elastic limit. The bulk
modulus is referred to the ratio of pressure and volumetric strain within the elastic limit.
Figure 2.1.3(a) to (c) schematically shows the uniaxial tensile, shear and hydrostatic
compression on a typical block of material. When a sample of material is stretched in one
direction it tends to get thinner in the other two directions. The Poisson's ratio becomes
important to highlight this characteristic of engineering material and is defined as the ratio
between the transverse strain (normal to the applied load) and the relative extension strain, or
the axial strain (in the direction of the applied load). For an engineering material, the elastic
modulus (E), bulk modulus (K), and the shear modulus (G) are related as: G = E/2(1+) and K =
E/3(1-2), where  refers to the Poisson’s ratio.

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 (a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.1.3 Schematic presentation of (a) tensile, (b) shear and (c) hydrostatic compression [4]

The strength (SI units: Pa or N/m2) is the property that enables an engineering material to resist
deformation under load. It is also defined as the ability of material to withstand an applied load
without failure. Based on the typical stress-strain behavior of an engineering material, a few
reference points are considered as important characteristics of the material. For example, the
proportional limit is referred to the stress just beyond the point where the stress / strain behavior
of a material first becomes non-linear. The yield strength refers to the stress required to cause
permanent plastic deformation. The ultimate tensile strength refers to the maximum stress value
on the engineering stress-strain curve and is often considered as the maximum load-bearing
strength of a material. The rupture strength refers to the stress at which a material ruptures
typically under bending. Different material behaves differently when subjected to load. Figure
2.1.4 indicates the different in stress strain behavior of typical cast iron, low carbon steel, and
aluminum alloy. Cast iron, being a brittle material generates steeper curve than low carbon steel
or aluminum alloy. There is no sign of yielding prior to failure, so the yield point has to be found
out graphically. The yield point strength in the case of low carbon steel and aluminum alloys can
be identified easily.
The hardness is another important mechanical property of engineering material and refers to the
resistance of a material against abrasion / scratching / indentation. The hardness of a material is
always specified in terms of the particular test that is used to measure the same. For a measure of
resistance against indentation, Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell, Knoop hardness tests are common.
Alternately, for a measure of resistance against scratch, Mohr’s hardness test is followed. The
basic principle used in these testing involves the pressing of a hard material against the candidate
material, whose hardness is to be measured. The Brinell hardness (figure 2.1.5) test method
consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball

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subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg
to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case
of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the
indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell
harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.
The typical Brinell hardness values of some of the commonly used engineering materials are as
follows: aluminum – 15, copper – 35, mild steel – 120, austenitic stainless steel – 250, hardened
tool steel – 650, and so on.

Figure 2.1.4 Comparison of behavior of different material

Another important mechanical property of engineering materials is the toughness that provides a
measure of a material to withstand shock and the extent of plastic deformation in the event of
rupture. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and plasticity. One way to
measure toughness is by calculating the area under the stress strain curve from a tensile test. The
toughness is expressed in Joule to indicate the amount of energy absorbed in the event of failure
or rupture. Figure 2.1.6 shows the schematic set-ups of Izod impact test and Charpy impact test.
In both the cases, impact loading is applied in notched specimen of predefined dimension.
Energy absorbed during the breakage of the specimen is the measure of the toughness. In a

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similar line, resilience of a material refers to the energy absorbed during elastic deformation and
is measured by the area under the elastic portion of the stress – strain curve. Izod and charpy
tests are two important methods for evaluating toughness of a material.

Figure 2.1.5 Brinell Hardness Test [5]

Figure 2.1.6 Schematic set-up of (a) Izod Test and (b) Charpy Test [6]

Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of an engineering material primarily refer to the characteristic behaviors
of the material under thermal load. For example, thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability

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of material to conduct heat and is expressed as W.K-1.m-1 in SI unit. The specific heat refers to
the measure of energy that is required to change the temperature for a unit mass and is expressed
as J.kg-1.K-1. The product of density and specific heat is often referred to the heat capacity of a
unit mass of material. The thermal diffusivity refers to the ratio of thermal conductivity and heat
capacity of a material and provides a measure the rate of heat conduction. The thermal diffusivity
is expressed in terms of m2.s-1.
When a material is subjected to both thermal and mechanical loading, two more characteristics
of materials - coefficient of thermal expansion and thermal shock resistance - become significant.
The coefficient of thermal expansion provides a measure of unit change in strain of a material for
unit change in temperature and is expressed in terms of K-1 in SI unit. The thermal strain in
material is considered to be isotropic in nature. The thermal shock resistance provides a measure
to which a material can withstand an impact load which is either thermal or thermo-mechanical
in nature. The thermal shock resistance is expressed as K T (1 -  ) E , where K is the thermal
conductivity, σ T maximal tension the material can resist, α the thermal expansion coefficient, E
the Young’s modulus and ν the Poisson’s ratio.

Getting Familiar with Different Materials

Metals
Metals have free valance electrons which are responsible for their good thermal and electrical
conductivity. Metals readily loose their electrons to form positive ions. The metallic bond is held
by electrostatic force between delocalized electrons and positive ions. Metals are primarily used
in the form of alloys which depict a combination of two or more materials, in which at least one
is metal. The iron based alloys are characterized as ferrous alloys. For example, steel is an alloy
of iron, carbon and other alloying elements, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, bronze is an
alloy of copper and tin, and so on. Metals and alloys are typically characterized by an excellent
blend of mechanical and thermal properties. Table 2.1.1 indicates the typical material properties
and common applications of some of the widely used metallic materials.

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 Table 2.1.1 Common material properties of metallic materials [7]
Material
Iron Copper Aluminum C-Steel AA6061 Ti-6Al-4V
Properties
Type Pure Pure Pure Fe- Alloy Al-alloy Ti-Alloy
-3
Density (kg.m ) 7870 8930 2698 8000 2700 4420
Melting Solidus = 855 Solidus = 1877
1808 1357 933 1750
Temperature (K) Liquidus = 924 Liquidus = 1933
Boiling
3134 2835 2792 3300 3533
Temperature (K)
Young’s
200 110 68 210 70-80 113.8
Modulus(GPa)
Shear
77.5 46 25 79.3 26 44
Modulus(GPa)
Bulk
166 140 76 160 40.7
Modulus(GPa)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.291 0.343 0.36 0.27-0.3 0.33 0.342
Yield Strength
50 33.3 250 275 880
(MPa)
Ultimate Tensile
210 90-180 410 310 950
Strength (MPa)
Coefficient of
Thermal
12.2 16.4 24 10.8 23.6 8.6
Expansion X 10-6
(K-1)
Thermal
Conductivity 76.2 400 210 35-55 180 6.7
-1 -1
(W.mm .K )
Specific Heat
440 385 900 490 896 526.3
(J.kg-1.K-1)
Utensils, Aerospace,
Aerospace,
Naval Aircraft fittings, Marine, Power
Heat Construction,
Application Construction, Pistons, Bike generation,
Exchanger Electrical
Chemical frames Offshore
conductors
transport, Industries

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Ceramics and Glasses
Ceramics are non-metallic in nature and refer to the carbide, boride, nitride and oxides of
Aluminum, silica, zirconium, etc. However, the ceramics possess excellent resistance to thermal
and chemical corrosion and wear resistant. Ceramics are also good thermal and electrical
insulators. Table 2.1.2 indicates the typical material properties and common applications of some
of the widely used ceramics.

Table 2.1.2 Material properties and applications of commonly used Ceramics [7]
Material
Glass
Alumina Silicon Carbide Silicon Nitride
(Soda-lime glass)
Properties
Density (kg.m-3) 3960 3000 3290 2520
Melting
2300 3000 2173 1313
Temperature (K)
Young’s
370 410 310 72-74
Modulus(GPa)
Shear
150 179 29.8
Modulus(GPa)
Bulk Modulus(GPa) 165 203
Poisson’s Ratio 0.22-0.27 0.14 0.27
Ultimate Tensile
300 250
Strength (MPa)
Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion 5.4 2.77 3.3 8.5
-6 -1
X 10 (K )
Thermal
Conductivity 30 33-155 30
-1 -1
(W.mm .K )
Specific Heat (J.kg-
1
850 715 840
.K-1)
Cutting Balls and roller of
High temperature
wheels, bearing, Cutting Windows, food
Application furnace, Heat
polishing tools, Engine valves, Preparation
shield
clothes Turbine blades

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Polymer
Polymer is a chain of molecules connected by covalent (sharing of electrons) chemical bond.
Three types of polymers are most common: (a) thermoplastics which can be reworked on
heating, (b) thermosets which cannot be worked with after curing is over, and (c) elastomers,
which typically provide very high elastic deformation. The polymers cannot withstand high
temperature due to their low transition temperature Table 2.1.3 indicates the typical material
properties and common applications of some of the widely used polymers.

Table 2.1.3 Material properties and applications of commonly used Polymers

Material
Polyvineyl
Bakelite Silicone
chloride (PVC)
Properties
Type thermoplastic elastomer Elastomer
968-1290
Density (kg.m-3) 1350 1300
High density silicone-2800
Melting Temperature (K) 373-530 588
Young’s Modulus(MPa) 1-5
10-60
Yield Strength (MPa)
(Flexible-rigid)
Ultimate Tensile Strength
2.6 21-47 11
(MPa)
Coefficient of Thermal
52 8.1
Expansion X 10-6 (K-1)
Thermal Conductivity
0.14-0.28 0.23 0.22
(W.mm-1.K-1)
Specific Heat (J.kg-1.K-1) 900 1465
Electrical appliances,
Electrical
Application Plumbing Structural application
Insulators
(below 200°C)

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Natural Materials
The most common examples of natural materials are wood, cotton, flax, wools, bamboo, jute
which primarily come from the plants or animals. Most of the natural materials are recyclable
and require considerable processing operations before use. Table 2.1.4 indicates the typical
material properties and common applications of some of the widely used natural materials.

Table 2.1.4 Material properties and applications of commonly used natural materials
Material
Oak Wood Wool Flax
Properties
European
Type
Oak
-3
Density (kg.m ) 650 22
Ignition Temperature (K) 523 873
Heat of Combution
4.9
(Kcal/g)
Longitudinal: 3.5
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 9-13
Transverse: 0.93
Shear Modulus(GPa)
Bulk Modulus(GPa)
Poisson’s Ratio
Yield Strength (MPa)
Ultimate Tensile Strength
50-180 163
(MPa)
Coefficient of Thermal
34-54
Expansion (K-1)
Thermal Conductivity
0.3-0.35 0.028
(W.mm-1.K-1)
Specific Heat (J.kg-1.K-1) 0.17
Furniture, Fabric, Thermal Fabrication
Application
Packaging insulator of twine

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Composite
Composite material is formed by combining one or more different materials. Unlike alloy
system each constituent is distinguishable and retain their properties. Composite materials
consist of matrix material with reinforcement to enhance its strength. Few common examples of
composites are FRP (Glass/carbon fiber reinforced polymers), Metal matrix composites. Using
composites one can combine attractive qualities of other materials and engineer properties to
demand. On the other side they are expensive and difficult to fabricate and join. Table 2.1.5
indicates common properties and applications of composites.

Table 2.1.5 Material properties and applications of commonly used composites

Material Carbon fiber
reinforced Aluminum Titanium Alumina
Cermet
Properties polymer matrix matrix matrix
matrix
Density (kg.m-3) 1800 2650 3860
Young’s Modulus(GPa) 210 300 85 100
Poisson’s Ratio 0.295
Yield Strength (MPa) 350 500
Ultimate Tensile Strength
7000 1500 1750 385 500
(N.mm-2)
Mechanical
Aerospace,
components, High Cutting
Sporting
Protection Aerospace temperature tools,
Application equipments,
screen, Turbines Mechanical Polishing
Electronic
Sporting Application materials
packaging
equipments

Foams
Foam is a substance formed by trapping many gaseous bubbles in liquid or solid. Solid foams are
very important class of structure due to its light weight. The foams can be metallic (eg. Titanium
foam), ceramic (alumina foam) or based on polymer (polyurethane foam). The metallic foams
are commonly used for medical implants. The ceramic foams are used typically as insulators
while the polymer based foams are primarily used for packaging and acoustic insulators.

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Exercise
Choose the correct answer.
1. Hydrostatic stress results in
(a) linear strain (b) shear strain (c) both linear and shear strain (d) None
2. Toughness of a material is equal to the area under ____ part of the stress-strain curve.
(a) Elastic (b) Plastic (c) Both elastic and plastic (d) None
3. During a tensile loading, the length of a steel rod is changed by 2 mm. If the original length
of the rod has been 20 mm, what is the amount of strain induced
(a) 0.1 (b) 2 (c) 0.9 (d) 0.22
4. ____ is an example of a chemical property.
(a) Density (b) Mass (c) Acidity (d) Diffusivity

Answers:
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c)

References
1. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.
2. G E Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 1961.
3. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
ROORKEE/strength%20of%20materials/homepage.html, (28.05.2012).
4. http://www.grantadesign.com/education/datasheets/sciencenote.html, (28.05.2012).
5. http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2765, (28.05.2012).
6. http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2763, (28.05.2012).
7. http://www.matweb.com, (28.05.2012).

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 Module
2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

IIT, Bombay 
 
 Lecture
2
Selection of Materials - I

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Instructional objectives
By the end of this lecture, the student will learn
(a) what is a material index and how does it help in selection of material for a given
application, and
(b) how to develop material indices considering the appropriate material properties for an
intended service.

Selection of Materials
Appropriate selection of material is significant for the safe and reliable functioning of a part or
component. Engineering materials can be broadly classified as metals such as iron, copper,
aluminum, and their alloys etc., and non-metals such as ceramics (e.g. alumina and silica
carbide), polymers (e.g. polyvinyle chloride or PVC), natural materials (e.g. wood, cotton, flax,
etc.), composites (e.g. carbon fibre reinforced polymer or CFRP, glass fibre reinforced polymer
or GFRP, etc.) and foams. Each of these materials is characterized by a unique set of physical,
mechanical and chemical properties, which can be treated as attributes of a specific material. The
selection of material is primarily dictated by the specific set of attributes that are required for an
intended service. In particular, the selection of a specific engineering material for a part or
component is guided by the function it should perform and the constraints imposed by the
properties the material.
The problem of selection of an engineering material for a component usually begins with setting
up the target Function, Objective, Constraints, and Free Variables. The Function refers to the
task that the component is primarily expected to perform in service – for example, support load,
sustain pressure, transmit heat, etc. The Objective refers to the target such as making the
component functionally superior but cheap and light. In other words, the Objective refers to
what needs to be minimized or maximized. The Constraints in the process of material selection
are primarily geometrical or functional in nature. For example, the length or cross-sectional area
of a component may be fixed. Similarly, the service conditions may demand a specific
component to operate at or beyond a critical temperature that will prohibit use of materials with
low melting temperature. The Free Variables refer to the available candidate materials.

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Material Index (M)
The Material Index (M) refers to an attribute (or a combination of attributes) that
characterizes the performance of a material for a given application. The material index allows
ranking of a set of engineering materials in order of performance for a given application.
Development of a Material Index (M) for an intended service includes the following steps.
 Initial Screening of Engineering Materials.
 Identification of Functions, Constrains, Objectives and Free Variables.
 Development of a Performance Equation.
 Use constraints to eliminate the free variable(s) from the performance equation and
develop the material index.
 Rank a suitable set of materials based on the material index.

Example 1: Selection of Material for a Light and Strong Tie-Rod [Fig.2.2.1]

Figure 2.2.1 Schematic presentation of a Tie-Rod with an axial tensile load, F

Function: Tie-rod to withstand an axial tensile load of F

Objective: Minimise mass (m) where m  AL , where  is the material density.
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Must not yield under axial tensile load, F
Free variable: (i) Cross-sectional area, A, (ii) Material
F
Performance Equation:   y , where  y is the yield strength of any material,
A
The Performance Equation can be rewritten by substituting the cross-sectional area, A, as

FL   
m  m  (F)(L)  (1)
y  y 
 
 
So to minimize mass, we have to minimize the term,   y . Or other way, we can maximize the

 
term  y    for the sake of our convenience (as the available material property charts are σ y vs.

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  
ρ format). So the material index, M 1 , in this case becomes  y  and a material with higher

value of M 1 is expected to perform better in comparison to a material with lower value of M 1 . It

should be noted that the Material Index in this case provides a ratio between the ultimate tensile
strength and the density of the material. Thus, the Material Index (M 1 ) would provide a premise
to examine if a material with higher weight (density) has to be selected to ensure that the same
has sufficient strength to avoid failure.

Example 2: Selection of Material for a Light and Stiff Beam [Fig. 2.2.2]

Figure 2.2.2 Schematic presentation of a beam with a bending load, F

Function: Beam to withstand a bending load of F

Objective: Minimise mass (m) where m  b 2 L , where  is the material density.
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Must not bend under bending load, F
Free variable: (i) Edge length, b, (ii) Material
Performance Equation:
The Performance Equation can be developed considering the fact that the beam must be stiff
enough to allow a maximum critical deflection, , under the bending load, F. Thus, the
Performance Equation can be given as
F  EI 
 (C1 ) 3  (2)
 L 
where  is the maximum permissible deflection, E is the young’s modulus, I is the second
moment of area. The stiffness, S, of the beam, can be written as, S  F  and the second moment

of area, I, can be written as, I  b 4 12 .

The Performance Equation can now be rewritten by substituting one of the free
variables (edge length, b) as

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 0.5
 12S    
m    (L) 3  0.5  (3)
 C1 L  E 

 
The material index, M 2 , in this case becomes E 0.5  and a material with higher value of M 2 is
expected to perform better in comparison to a material with lower value of M 2 . In other words,
the Material Index (M 2 ) will depict if a material with higher weight (density) has to be selected
to ensure that the same has sufficient stiffness (i.e. E) to avoid bending during service.

Example 3: Selection of Material for a Light and Strong Beam [Fig. 2.2.3]

Figure 2.2.3 Schematic presentation of a beam with a bending load, F

Function: Beam to withstand a bending load of F

Objective: Minimise mass (m) where m  b 2 L , where  is the material density.
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Must not fail under bending load, F
Free variable: (i) Edge length, b, (ii) Material
Performance Equation:
The Performance Equation can be developed considering the fact that the beam must be strong
enough so that it does not fail due to an applied bending moment, M, due to the load, F. Thus,
the Performance Equation can be given as

M  I   y 

 (C 2 )   (4)
L  b / 2  L 
where  y is the yield strength of the material and I is the second moment of area. The second
moment of area, I, can be written as, I  b 4 12 .
The Performance Equation can now be rewritten by substituting one of the free
variables (edge length, b) as

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 2 2
 6M  3     6F 3  
m    (L) 3  2 / 3  or m    ( L) 3    (5)
 y  2    2y / 3 
 C2L     C2L   

 
The material index, M 3 , in this case becomes  2y / 3  and a material with higher value of M 3 is

expected to perform better in comparison to a material with lower value of M 3 . In other words,
the Material Index (M 3 ) allows the examination if a material with higher weight (density) has to
be selected to ensure that the same has sufficient strength (i.e.  f ) to avoid failure during service.

Example 4: Selection of Material for a Light and Stiff Panel [Fig. 2.2.4]

Figure 2.2.4 Schematic presentation of a panel with a bending load, F

Function: Panel to withstand a bending load of F

Objective: Minimise mass (m) where m  w t L  , where  is the material density.

Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Must not bend under bending load, F
Free variable: (i) Panel Thickness, t, (ii) Material
Performance Equation:
The Performance Equation can be developed considering the fact that the stiffness of the panel
is sufficient to allow a maximum critical deflection, , under the bending load, F. Thus, the
Performance Equation can be given as
F  EI 
 (C 3 ) 3  (6)
 L 
where  is the maximum permissible deflection, E is the young’s modulus, I is the second
moment of area. The stiffness, S, of the beam, can be written as, S  F  and the second moment

of area, I, can be written as, I  wt 3 12 . The Performance Equation can now be rewritten by
substituting one of the free variables (panel thickness, t) as

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 1/ 3
 12Sw 2    
m    ( L) 2  1 / 3  (7)
 C3L  E 

The material index, M 4 , in this case becomes E 1 / 3  and a material with higher value of M 4 is
expected to perform better in comparison to a material with lower value of M 4 .
The above four examples depict the simple procedure to develop Material Indices for the
selection of suitable material for various structural requirements. These Material Indices can be
used subsequently to shortlist a range of suitable materials from appropriate Material Property
Charts in a graphical manner. The Material Property Charts display the combination of material
properties like Young’s modulus and density, strength and density, Young’s modulus and
strength, thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity, strength and cost, and so on. Figure 2.2.5
shows a typical Material Property Chart that displays Young’s modulus (in GPa) vis-à-vis
density (in Mg/m3) for a range of engineering materials in a log-log scale.

Figure 2.2.5 Material Property Chart of Young’s Modulus vis-à-vis Density [2]

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Exercise
Choose the correct answer.
1. The Material Index that can be used to select a suitable material for a light, stiff panel is
(a) E 1 / 3  (b) 1 / 3 E  (c) E  (d) E 3 
2. The Material Index that can be used to select a suitable material for a light, stiff tie-rod is
(a) E  (b)  2 E  (c) E  (d)  f  
3. The Material Index that can be used to select a suitable material for a light, stiff beam is
(a) E 1 / 2  (b) 1 / 2 E  (c) E  (d) E 2 
4. The Material Index that can be used to select a suitable material for a light, strong beam is
(a)  f2 / 3  (b)  2 / 3  f  (c)  f  
(d) E 3  
5. The Material Index that can be used to select a suitable material for a light, cheap and strong
beam is
(a)  f2 / 3 C m  (b)  2 / 3 C m  f  (c)  f C m   (d) C 2m/ 3 2 / 3  f 

Answers:
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a)

References
1. G Dieter, Engineering Design - a materials and processing approach, McGraw Hill, NY,
2000.
2. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.

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 Module
2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

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 Lecture
3
Selection of Materials - II

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Instructional objectives
This is a continuation of the previous lecture. By the end of this lecture, the student will further
learn
(a) how to develop material index for structural application.
(b) how to use the typical material indices for the selection of material for common
engineering parts.

Example 5: Selection of Material for a Cheap and Stiff Column

Figure 2.3.1 Schematic presentation of a cylindrical column with a compressive load, F

Figure 1 shows the schematic picture of a typical cylindrical column with uniform cross-section
subjected to a compressive load, F. The task is to develop a suitable material index that can help
in the selection of the material for the column that is cheap and sufficiently stiff to avoid a
buckling failure. The above problem can be translated into functional requirement, objective,
constraints to be considered, and the free variables that the designers are allowed to change.
Function: Column to withstand a compressive load of F
Objective: Minimise cost (C) where C  (AL)C m , where  is the material density.
L is the length of the column, A is the uniform circular cross-section of the
column, and C m is the cost per unit mass of the material.
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Must not buckle under compressive load, F
Free variable: (i) Cross-sectional area, A, (ii) Material

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Performance Equation:
The Performance Equation can be developed considering the fact that the compressive load, F,
must not exceed the critical buckling load (F CR ) for the given column considering its important
dimension and material property. Usually, the length of typical columns is always a constraint.
Thus, the Performance Equation can be given as

n 2 EI
F  FCR where FCR  (1)
L2
where r is the radius of the cylindrical column, E is the young’s modulus, I is the second moment

 r2 A2
of area and can be given as I   , and n depends on the typical end constraints of the
4 4
column.
The Performance Equation can now be rewritten by substituting the expression of I in
equation (1) and eliminating the term A thereafter from equation (1) as
1/ 2 1/ 2
 4   F  C 
C    (L)1 / 3  m  (2)
 n   L2   E1 / 2 

E1 / 2
The material index, M, in this case becomes and a material with higher value of M would
Cm
be a better candidate both in terms stiffness and cost in comparison to a material with lower
value of M. Table 2.3.1 illustrates the evaluated values of the above material index for a range of
common engineering materials.

Table 2.3.1 Estimated values of ( E 1 / 2 C m  ) for common engineering materials

Materials E (MPa) C m (Rs./kg) (app.)  (kg/m3) E1 / 2 C m 

Mild Steel 205000 60.00 7870 9.59 x 10-4
Aluminium 68000 250.00 2698 3.87 x 10-4
Concrete 20000 10 2010 70.35 x 10-4
Stainless Steel 193000 350.00 7860 1.59 x 10-4

The above example in addition to the four examples explained in the previous lecture show the
general approach to develop Material Indices for the selection of suitable material for various

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structural requirements. Once a typical material index is developed for an intended application,
the same can be used next to choose a range of suitable materials either from a Material Property
Chart in a graphical manner or analytically by computing and ranking the values of the material
index for a range of engineering materials. The actual worked out examples on how to evaluate
the material indices for common engineering materials are presented in subsequent chapter.

General Approach to develop a Material Index

The general approach to develop a Material Index for an intended application lies in the
appropriate realization of the functional requirements, constraints, objective, and the free
variables (unconstrained). It is easy to understand these aspects through a set of queries. For
example, the function requirement can be realized by asking a question: what does the
component intend to do? The constraints can be realized by asking the query: what specific
constraints must be met e.g. stiffness and / or strength and / or dimensions? The constraints can
often be specified as hard constrains that are non-negotiable. For example, a component must
carry a certain load without elastic deflection or plastic deformation or failure. The constraints
can also soft that are primarily relation to the aesthetic aspects or cost and hence, negotiable The
objective primarily stands for what is to be minimized or maximized? The free variables refer to
the features that the designers are free to change (e.g. dimensions, materials, etc.).

Once the functional requirements, constraints, objective, and the free variables are identified for
a typical application, all the constraints related to the task should be listed and if possible, the
constraints can be presented in the form of a set of a single or multiple expressions. Next, the
objective of the design must be expressed in terms of functional requirements, geometry and
materials properties. This expression is referred to as the performance equation as shown in the
examples 1 to 5. If the performance equation contains a free variable, we have to identify the
constraint that limits the free variable. Next, we use this constrain to eliminate the free variable
in the performance equation. Lastly, we should be able to select the combination of the material
properties, referred to as the material index, which would maximize the performance. A set of
examples are given below to show how a suitable material index can be developed for the
selection of material for different applications.

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Example 6: Selection of Material for legs of a typical Reading Table.

Figure 2.3.2 Schematic picture of a Reading Table with four supporting legs

Figure 2 shows the schematic view of a typical table with four supporting legs. For simplicity,
we can assume that the supporting lags confirm to a uniform circular cross-section and each leg
must support a compressive load, F, without buckling distortion. Thus, the problem can be
envisaged as to develop a suitable material index to aid to the selection of material for a slender
and light supporting leg that will be able to support an applied design load without buckling
distortion and will not break if struck accidentally. Thus, the nature of the problem is similar to
the Example-5, as outlined above. The above problem can be translated into functional
requirement, objective, constraints to be considered, and the free variables that the designers are
allowed to change as follows.
Function: Column to withstand a compressive load of F
Objective: Minimise the mass (m) and Maximize the slenderness
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified,
(ii) Must not buckle under a compressive load, F, which is envisaged as
the design load.
(iii) Must not fracture if struck accidentally.
Free variable: (i) Cross-sectional area, A, or Diameter of legs, (2r) (ii) Material
Performance Equation:
Considering that the supporting leg to be a slender column of any material with density  and
length L, the mass, to be minimized, can be given as

m   r 2 L (3)

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The maximum buckling load that each leg can support without a buckling distortion can be given
as

 2 EI  3 Er 4  r2
FCR   where I  (4)
L2 4L2 4
Substituting the free variable, r, from equation (4) to equation (3), we can write
1 1
 4F  2     4F  2  1 
m    (L2 )   m    (L2 )  (5)
    E1 / 2      M1 
where M 1 represents the material index. It is easy to understand from equation (5), that the mass,
m, of a supporting table leg can be minimized as the material index, M 1 , will be maximized for a
given set of candidate materials.
A comparison of equations (5) and (3) further shows that thinnest possible leg that will not
buckle under a designed compressive load, F, can be given as
1 1
1/ 4 1/ 4
 4F  4 1  4F  2  1 
r    (L1 / 2 )   r    (L2 )  (6)
 3  E     M2 
It is clear from equation (6), that the diameter (2r) of the supporting table legs with uniform
cross-section would be minimized, which will in turn enhance the slenderness, with the increase
in the value of the material index, M 2 . To meet the constraint that the table legs should not
fracture if struck accidentally, a third material index, M 3 , may be considered corresponding to
the fracture toughness (K 1C ) of the material.

Thus, the problem of selecting a suitable material for the table leg can be envisaged as an
  
optimization problem where all the three material indices – M1    , M 2  E  and
1/ 2 
 E 
M3  K1C  – are required to be maximized within a set of candidate materials. Based on initial
screening, an active set of candidate materials may be considered as wood, steel, aluminum,
titanium, composite (e.g. CFRP), etc. The values of all the three material indices for the initially
screened materials can be evaluated either from material handbook or material property charts
and accordingly, a ranking of these materials based on the corresponding values of the material
indices can be prepared. At this stage, the manufacturability and the cost evaluation of each

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material should be undertaken. The final selection of material at the end of such an exercise
would be a trade-off among greater values of the corresponding material indices,
manufacturability aspects and cost evaluation.

Exercise
1. Develop a suitable material index for the selection of material for Oars used for rowing.
2. Develop a suitable material index for the selection of material for Spatula used for cooking.

References
1. G Dieter, Engineering Design - a materials and processing approach, McGraw Hill, NY,
2000.
2. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.

IIT, Bombay 
 
 Module
2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

IIT, Bombay 
 
 Lecture
4
Case Studies - I

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Instructional objectives
This is a continuation of the previous lecture. By the end of this lecture, the student will further
learn how to develop and use typical material indices for the selection of material for common
engineering parts. Two examples are illustrated here with regard to the development of material
indices for corresponding applications.

Example 7: Selection of Material for an efficient flywheel

Figure 2.4.1 Schematic presentation of a typical flywheel

Figure 2.4.1 shows the schematic picture of a typical flywheel that is used to store rotational
energy in applications such as automotive transmissions. An efficient flywheel should be able to
store the maximum energy per unit volume or per unit mass at a specified angular velocity. The
task is to search for a suitable material index for the selection of material for an efficient
flywheel that should have adequate toughness and can store the maximum kinetic energy per unit
volume or mass. The above problem can be translated into functional requirement, objective,
constraints to be considered, and the free variables that the designers are allowed to change as
follows.
Function: Flywheel for energy storage
Objective: Maximize kinetic energy per unit mass.
Constraints: (i) Outer radius, R, may be fixed, (ii) Must not burst, and (iii) Should have
adequate toughness to avoid catastrophic failure.
Free variable: Choice of material

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Performance Equation
The Performance Equation can be developed as follows. The energy (U) stored in a flywheel
can be estimated as

1 2 R 4 t
U J where J  (1)
2 2
where  is the density of the material,  is the angular speed of the flywheel, R is the radius and t
is the thickness of the flywheel disc. The mass (m) of the flywheel disc can be given as
m  R 2 t (2)
Hence, the energy per unit mass can be given as,
U 1 2 2
 R  (3)
m 4
The maximum principal stress ( max ) on the flywheel disc as a function of the rotational velocity
can be expressed as,
1
 max  R 2  2 (4)
2
Since the maximum principal stress should not exceed the failure strength ( f ) of the material,
we can develop the material index, M 1 , to maximize the energy stored per unit mass by
rearranging equations (3) and (4) as,
U 1  f  1
    M1 (5)
m 2    2
It is clear from equation (5) that greater values of M1 will tend to maximize the energy stored per
unit mass for a given angular speed, radius and thickness of the flywheel disc. A second material
index, M 2 , can be considered in terms of fracture toughness (K 1C ) of the material.
Figure 2.4.2 depicts a typical chart of material properties (strength,  f , vis-à-vis density, ) in a
log-log scale. The advantage of log-log scale over decimal scale is that the constant material
index lines will appear as a straight line which makes the selection and representation easier. The
black line represents the constant material index line, for M 1,. Since the chart is plotted in log-log
scale, the black line confirms to a straight line [denoted as: log  f  log M  log  ]. Thus, any
engineering material falling around the line will confirm to a similar value of material index and
by sliding the line, it is possible to select a set of suitable candidate materials considering M 1 .
Figure 2.4.2 depicts that aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, engineering composites and

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engineering ceramic would provide excellent values of M 1 . However, the engineering ceramics
would provide very low fracture toughness [M 2 ] and hence, may be eliminated. Further selection
must be made based on the cost and the energy storage capacity of specific materials.

Figure 2.4.2 Schematic material chart of strength vis-à-vis density of engineering materisls

Example 8: Selection of Material for pressure vessel

Figure 2.4.3 shows the schematic picture of the cross-section of a spherical pressure vessel and
typical circumferential stresses experienced by the vessel wall with a presumed crack. The safe
design of a small sized pressure vessel would require that the material yields before a final
fracture. Similarly, the safe design of large pressure vessels typically calls for a criterion that any
small crack opens as a leak prior to a catastrophic failure. The above problem can be translated
into functional requirement, objective, constraints to be considered, and the free variables that
the designers are allowed to change as follows.
Function: Pressure vessel to contain an internal pressure of p safely.
Objective: Maximize kinetic energy per unit mass.
Constraints: (i) maximize safety using yield-before-break criterion (small vessel), or

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 (ii) maximize safety using leak-before-break criterion (large vessel)
Free variable: (i) Choice of material

Figure 2.4.3 Schematic presentation of the cross-section of a spherical pressure vessel

Performance Equation:
The Performance Equation can be developed as follows. Stress () in the wall of a thin-walled
spherical pressure vessel of radius R, wall thickness t and with internal pressure, p, can be given
as
pR
 (6)
2t
The minimum stress required for a presumed circumferential crack of diameter 2a c to propagate
can be given as
CK1C
 (7)
a c

where C is a constant and K 1C the plane-strain fracture toughness of the pressure vessel material.
Hence, the largest pressure (for a given vessel radius, R, wall thickness, t, and initial
circumferential crack diameter, 2a c ) would be carried by the material with the greatest value of
K 1C and hence, we can write
M1  K1C (8)
However, the material index M 1 alone cannot ensure a fail-safe design, which further requires
   f , where  f is the failure strength of the material, which translates to an appropriate
material index, M 1 , as
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 K  K
a c  C 2  1C   M1  1C (9)
 f  f

For typical large pressure vessels, we can estimate the minimum stress required for a crack to
penetrate the wall thickness, t, thereby making a leak can be estimated as
CK1C
  f  (10)
t/2
Substituting for t using equations (1) and (10), we can further express the safe internal pressure
as

4C 2  K12C 
p   (11)
R  f 
 
Thus, the maximum pressure would be contained safely by the material with the largest value of
 K12C 
M2    (12)
 f 
 
Lastly, we must ensure that the material with the minimum thickness would offer the maximum
strength and hence, we must consider another material index, M 3 , as
M3  f (13)

Figure 2.4.4 depicts a typical chart of material properties (strength,  f , vis-à-vis fracture
toughness,  C ) in a log-log scale with three black lines confirming to the material indices, M 1 ,
M 2 and M 3 . The safe region would be the one which is above all the three lines as indicated in
the figure. It can be noticed that one of the most suitable material appears to be stainless steel
[M 1 ~ 0.35 m1/2, M 3 ~ 300 MPa], which is actually used for all critical pressure vessels. For
example, some special grade of stainless steel is widely used for nuclear pressure vessels. A
second candidate is low-alloy steel [M 1 ~ 0.20 m1/2, M 3 ~ 800 MPa], which is a standard material
used for manufacturing pressure vessels. A third candidate is copper [M 1 ~ 0.50 m1/2, M 3 ~ 200
MPa], and hard drawn copper is often used to manufacture small boilers and pressure vessels.
The pressure tanks of rockets and aluminum are often made of aluminum alloys which confirm
to M 1 ~ 0.15 m1/2 and M 3 ~ 200 MPa. Titanium alloys are another choice with M 1 ~ 0.13 m1/2
and M 3 ~ 800 MPa, which are often used for light pressure vessels while they are relatively
expensive.

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 Figure 2.4.4 Schematic chart of strength vis-à-vis fracture toughness of engineering materials

Exercise
1. Develop a suitable material index for the selection of material for Oars used for rowing.
2. Develop a suitable material index for the selection of material for Spatula used for cooking.

References
1. G Dieter, Engineering Design - a materials and processing approach, McGraw Hill, NY,
2000.
2. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.

IIT, Bombay 
 
 Module
2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

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 Lecture
5
Selection of Shapes

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Instructional objectives
By the end of this lecture, the student will learn
(a) what is shape factor and how it can be used to enhance the mechanical efficiency of a
material, and
(b) how to develop shape factors considering appropriate load and different cross section.

Selection of Shapes
So far we have learned how the combination of material properties can be used to develop a
material index for the selection of a suitable material for a given application under different
loading conditions. Similarly, the cross-sectional shape of a part can be used to enhance the load
bearing capacity. An engineering material confirms to a modulus and strength, but it can be made
stiffer and stronger when loaded under bending or twisting by shaping it into an I-beam or a
hollow tube, respectively. It can be made less stiff by flattening it into a leaf or winding it, in the
form of a wire, or into a helix. ‘Shaped’ sections (i.e. cross-section formed to a tube, a box-
section, an I-section or the like) carry bending, torsional, and axial-compressive loads more
‘efficiently’ (i.e. for a given loading conditions, the section uses as little material as possible)
than solid sections. The efficiency can be enhanced by introducing sandwich panels of the same
or different materials. But when choosing shapes one has to be careful so the basic functional
requirement is not violated.

Shape Factor (φ)

Shape Factor is a dimensionless number that characterizes the efficiency of the shape, regardless
of its scale, for a given mode of loading, e.g. bending, torsion, twisting, etc. The four primary
shape factors of our consideration are,

  eB Macro shape factor for elastic bending

  eT Macro shape factor for elastic torsion

  fB Macro shape factor for onset of failure in bending

  fT Macro shape factor for onset of plasticity or failure in torsion

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All the shape factors are defined equal to 1 for a solid cylinder i.e. our reference cross sectional
shape is circular. Shape Factor of all other cross section will be evaluated w.r.t this one.

Example 9: Selection of shape factor in elastic bending of beam

The bending stiffness S of a beam is proportional to the product EI and can be given as
S  EI (1)
where E is Young’s modulus and I is the second moment of area of the beam about the axis of
bending (the x axis), which can be written as

I   y 2 dA (2)

where y is measured normal to the bending axis and dA is the differential element of area at y.
The values of the moment I and of the area A for the common sections are listed in the first two
columns of Table 2.5.1. The second moment of area, I 0 , for a reference beam of circular section
with radius r is simply

 r4 A2
I0   (3)
4 4
The bending stiffness of any shaped section differs from that of a circular one with the same area

A by the factor  eB where

S EI I
 eB    4 (4)
S0 EI 0 A2

Note that the factor  eB is dimensionless and depends only on the shape. For example, the big

and small beams have the same value of  eB if their section shapes are the same. Figure 2.5.1
shows three different shapes with their corresponding values of shape factor to be considered for
elastic bending of beams. It can be noted that the values of the shape factor do not change with
the size of the shape.
 

Figure 2.5.1 Schematic pictures of a set of (a) rectangular sections with  eB = 2; (b) I-sections

with  eB = 10; and (c) tubes section with  eB = 12.

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Table 2.5.1 Area (A), Second moment of Area (I), Torsional moment of Area (K), Section
modulus in bending (Z), and in torsion (Q) for common engineering shapes
Section A I K Z Q
Shape (m2) (m4) (m4) (m3) (m3)

   
r 2 r4 r4 r3   r3  
4 2 4 2

b4 b3
b2 0.14b 4   0.21b 3  
12 6

a 2b
 a 3b 3 
ab a 3b a 2b   2  
4 (a  b )
2 2
4
( a  b)

b3h  b
3 1  0.58  2
b2h2
bh 3  h bh  
bh   3h  1.8b
12 ( h  b) 6
( h  b)

3 2 a4 a4 3 a3 a3
a  
4 32 3 80 32 20  

   
 (ro2  ri 2 ) (ro4  ri 4 ) (ro4  ri 4 ) (ro4  ri 4 ) (ro4  ri 4 )
4 2 4ro   2ro  
 2rt
 r 3t  2r 3t  r 2t  2r 2t
4 2
2 3  t 4 2  t
4bt bt b 3t  1   b t  2b 2t 1    
3  b 3  b

  3b  4 (ab) 5 / 2 t a 2t 3b  2t (a 3b)1/ 2

 (a  b)t a t 1  
3
1      
4  a a2  b2 4  a (b  a)

b(ho  hi )
b 3
(ho  hi3 )
b 3
6ho

ho  hi3 
12 ------
 2bt
 btho2 / 2  btho

2t (h  b t 3 2 3  4h  h 2t  3b  2 2  4h 
(h  4bt 2 ) bt 1   1     bt 1    
6 3  b  3  h 3  b 

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 t 3 2 3  4b  t 3 2 2  4b 
2t (h  b) (h  4bt 2 ) ht 1   (h  4bt 2 )   ht 1    
6 3  h  3h 3  h 

  2d 2  t d 2 t d
t 1   ------
 42  8 4

Example 10: Selection of shape factor in elastic twisting of shafts

The shapes that can resist bending effectively may not be so good when loaded under torsion.
The stiffness of a shaft in torsion i.e. the torque T divided by the angle of twist () is proportional
to GK, where G is the shear modulus and K is the torsional moment of area. For a typical circular
sections K is identical with the polar moment of area, J, which can be given as

J   r 2 dA (5)

where dA is the differential element of area at the radial distance r and measured from the centre
of the section. For typical non-circular sections, K is less than J and is defined such that the angle
of twist is related to the torque T by
T KG
ST   (6)
 L
where L is length of the shaft and G the shear modulus of the material of the shaft. The
approximate expressions for K for several common sections are listed in Table 2.5.1. The shape

factor for a shaft under elastic twisting (  eT ) can therefore be given by

ST K K K 2K
 eT      (7)
ST 0 K 0 r 4 2 A 2 2  A 2

Example 11: Selection of shape factor for failure in bending and twisting
The bending stress,  b , is the largest at the point y m on the surface of the beam [as shown in
figure 2.5.2] that lies furthest from the neutral axis and can be given as
My m M
b   (8)
I Z
where M is the bending moment and Z is the section modulus. Failure in bending can occur when
 b exceeds the failure strength (yield strength or the ultimate tensile strength) of the material of

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the beam. The shape factor in this case is considered through the section modulus, Z, and is
measured by the ratio, Z Z 0 , where Z 0 is the section modulus of a reference beam of circular
section with the same cross-sectional area, A. Hence, the shape factor to be considered against
failure in bending can be given as

Z Z 4 Z
 fB    (9)
Z 0 r 4 A 3 / 2
3

Similarly, in case of a circular rod subjected to a torque T, the maximum shear stress  max occurs
at the maximum radial distance r max from the axis of twisting and can be given as
Trmax T
 max   (10)
J Q

(a) (b)

Maximum
bending
stress

Figure 2.5.2 Schematic picture of (a) bending of beam, and (b) cross-section of beam

where M is the bending moment and Z is the section modulus. Failure in bending can occur when
 b exceeds the failure strength (yield strength or the ultimate tensile strength) of the material of
the beam. The shape factor in this case is considered through the section modulus, Z, and is
measured by the ratio, Z Z 0 , where Z 0 is the section modulus of a reference beam of circular
section with the same cross-sectional area, A. Hence, the shape factor to be considered against
failure in bending can be given as

Z Z 4 Z
 fB    (11)
Z 0 r 3 4 A 3 / 2

Similarly, in case of a circular rod subjected to a torque T, the maximum shear stress  max occurs
at the maximum radial distance r max from the axis of twisting and can be given as

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 Trmax T
 max   (12)
J Q
The quantity in J rmax in equation (12) has the same character as I/y in bending. Hence, the

shape factor in failure in twisting can be given by the ratio Q Q 0 as

Q 2 Q
 fT   (13)
Q0 A3 / 2
The expression for the shape factors for different shapes is given in the Table 2.5.2.

Table 2.5.2 Shape factors of common engineering shapes in elastic bending and twisting, and
in failure in bending and twisting
Section  eT  fT
 eB  fB
Shape

1 1 1 1

 2 
 1.05 0.88  1.18 0.74
3 3

a 2ab a a
( a  b)
b a  b2
2
b b

2b  h 2  (b / h)1/ 2
h 1  0.58  2  h
1/ 2
3h  b   3(1  0.6b / h) 2
3b 3 b
( h  b) ( h  b)

2 2
 1.21  0.73 0.77 0.62
3 3 5 3

1/ 2 1/ 2
r r  2r   2r 
   
t t  t   t 

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 b b  t
4
2  b
1/ 2
 b  t
1/ 2 2

1       1  
6t 8t  b  3 t 2  t   b

a(1  3b / a) 8(ab) 5 / 2 1/ 2
a (1  3b / a) 4 a1 / 2
t (a 2  b 2 )(a  b) 2  
t (1  b / a ) 2 t (1  b / a) 3 / 2 t 1/ 2 (1  a / b) 3 / 2

h 2 2 h
----- -----
2bt (bt )1/ 2

1/ 2
h(1  3b / h) b h 2  h  (1  3b / h)
2 2
  2 h
6t (1  b / h) 2
t ( h  b) 3 3 t (1  b / h) 3 / 2
(bt ) (1  h / b) 3 / 2
1/ 2

h(1  4bt 2 / h 3 ) t (1  8b / h)  h

1/ 2
(1  4bt 2 / h 3 ) 1/ 2
   t  (1  8b / h)
6t (1  b / h) 2
6h(1  b / h) 2 2 t (1  b / h) 3 / 2  
 18h  (1  b / h) 3 / 2

d 2 d
----- -----
2t (t )1/ 2

Limits to shape factor

From the above discussion it can be concluded that to make stiff and strong structures, efficient
shape factors have to be made which is often limited by a number of factors as follows.
[1] The range of shape factor for a given material is limited either by manufacturing
constraints or by local buckling.
[2] Steel, for example, can be drawn to thin walled tubing or formed (by rolling, folding or
welding) into other efficient shapes; shape factors as high as 30 are common and they
may reach 65.
[3] Wood cannot be shaped so easily and shapes with values greater than 3 are rare.
However, bamboo is a gift of nature and is already shaped in tubular fashion which
possesses a high value of shape factor. But it is very difficult to give it any other shape.
Composites, too, can be limited by the present difficulty in making thin-walled shapes.

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The maximum useful shape factor for simple shapes is related to the ratio E/σ f of a given
material. Table 2.5.3 outlines the maximum possible shape factors in common engineering
materials based on various manufacturing technologies available today.

Table 2.5.3 Maximum values of shape factors in common engineering materials

Material ( eB ) max ( eT ) max ( fB ) max ( fT ) max

Structural steel 65 25 13 7
6061 aluminium alloy 44 31 10 8
GFRP and CFRP 39 26 9 7
Polymers (e.g. nylons) 12 8 5 4
Woods (solid sections) 5 1 3 1
Elastomers <6 3 - -

Exercise
Choose the correct answer

1. What will be the expression for shape factor,  eB , when the reference cross section is a
square of area A?
12I I 4 I 2 I
(a) (b) (c) (d)
A2 A2 A3/ 2 A2

2. What will be the expression for shape factor,  eT , when the reference cross section is a
square of area A?
2K  K 7.14K 4 K
(a) (b) (c) (d)
A2 A3 / 2 A2 A2

3. What will be the expression for shape factor,  fB , when the reference cross section is a
square of area A?
6Z  Z Z 4 Z
(a) (b) (c) (d)
A3 / 2 A 3/ 2
A 3/ 2
A2

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4. What will be the expression for shape factor,  fT , when the reference cross section is a
square of area A?
 Q 4.8Q 4.8Q  Q
(a) (b) (c) (d)
A3 / 2 A3/ 2 A2 A2

Answers: 1(a), 2(c), 3(a), 4(b)

References
1. G Dieter, Engineering Design - a materials and processing approach, McGraw Hill, NY,
2000.
2. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.

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 Module
2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

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 Lecture
6
Co-Selection of Materials
and Shapes

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Instructional objectives
By the end of this lecture, the student will learn
(a) how to modify the material indices obtained in lecture 2 to include shape factors,
(b) how to make a trade-off between material properties and shape factors,

Material indices that include Shape Factor

So far we have obtained material indices, also referred to as the performance indices, and shape
factors independently for different structural applications. We have observed that the material
indices are not influenced by the shape. However, the resistance to stiffness and strength are
significantly influenced by the shape factors. Thus, the overall aim of the selection of a suitable
material for a given application would be facilitated if the material indices can be compounded
with appropriate shape factors. We will show in the following how combined material indices
can be formed considering both the important properties of material and attributes of shape.

Example 12: Combined Material Index for elastic bending

Consider the selection of a material for a beam of specified bending stiffness S B and length L
(the constraints), to have minimum mass, m (the objective). The mass m of a beam of length L
and section area A is given, as before, by
m  AL (1)
Before going to develop combined material index, the methodology has to be clarified. From the
elemental beam theory, we get the expression for bending stiffness. The bending stiffness, S B , is
given by
C EI
SB  1 (2)
L3
where C 1 is a constant that depends only on the way the loads are distributed on the beam. Now,
in this case the bending stiffness is specified and we have to incorporate the shape factor and
4I
material properties in the combined index. So, replacing I from  eB  in equation (2), we
A2
can write

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 C E e A 2
SB  1 B (3)
4 L3
From the problem statement is is clear that the cross section of the beam is also a variable. So, A
has to be replaced from equation (1) to obtain the expression of m in proper form. Using
equations (1) and (3) and replacing A from equation (1),
1/ 2 1/ 2
 4S B   2 
m    L 5/2
  (4)
 C1   E e 
 B
So, to minimize the mass, we have to maximize the combined material index, M 1

(E eB )1 / 2
M1  (5)


Example 13: Combined Material Index for elastic torsion

The procedure for the development of combined material index for elastic twisting of shafts is
similar. Let us consider a shaft of cross-sectional area A and length L which is subjected to a
torque T and twists through an angle, . It is required that the torsional stiffness, T/θ, meets a
specified target, S T , at the minimum mass. The methodology is exactly same as that of previous
example. Only the bending case has been replaced by torsion and the corresponding changes has
been done. The torsional stiffness, S T , can be expressed as
KG
ST  (6)
L
where G is the shear modulus and K is related to the shape factor under elastic torsion that is
 2K 
given as  eT    . Equation (6) can therefore be rearranged as
 A2 

G eT A 2
ST  (7)
2L
Next, using equation (7) to eliminate A in equation (1) leads to
1/ 2
 2 
m  2S T  1/ 2 3/ 2
L   (8)
 G e 
 T 

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 3
By using G  E ,  we note that the combined material index (M 2 ) that needs to be maximized to
8
minimize the mass can be written as:

(E eT )1 / 2
M2  (9)


Example 14: Combined Material Index for design against failure in bending
The problem statement remains almost similar to the previous two examples. A beam of length
L, loaded in bending, must support a specified load F without failure and be as light as possible.
When the section-shape is also a variable along with the material, a combined material index can
be found as follows. Failure occurs if the load exceeds the bending moment (M f )
M f  Z f (10)
where Z is the section modulus and  f is the failure strength of any material. Replacing Z by the

shape factor  fB in equation (10), we get

 f A3 / 2
Mf  f B               (11)
4 
Substituting this into equation (1) for the mass of the beam gives
2/3
 3 / 2 
m  (4 M f ) 2/3
L             (12)
  f 
 f B
Hence, the suitable combined material index (M3) that needs to be maximized in this case to
identify a suitable material considering its best possible shape factor can be given as

( f  fB ) 2 / 3
M3  (13)


Example 15: Combined Material Index for design against failure in torsion
Similar to bending, the failure of the beam will occur if the load exceeds the torque
Tf   f Q                 (14)

Replacing Q by the shape factor fT  in equation (14), we get

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  f A 3 / 2
Tf  f T               (15)
4 
Substituting this into equation (1) for the mass of the beam yields
2/3
 3 / 2 

m  4 Tf 
2/3
L
  f


          (16)
 f T 
The best material-and-shape combination would confirm to the greatest value of the material
index (M 4 )

( f  fT ) 2 / 3
M4                (17)


Example 16: Selection of Material considering shape factor for Elastic Bending
Let us consider an example of the selection of a material for a stiff, shaped beam of minimum
mass. Table 1 enlists four materials that are available. We will search for largest value of the
combined material index, M 1, as noted in equation (5). It is imperative from Table 1 that wood
would be chosen as the best material if the shape factor is not considered. However, considering
both material properties and the shape factor, wood becomes the worst choice and AA 6061-T4
becomes the most suitable material. This happens primarily because of the fact that the
maximum value of shape factor that can be obtained in wood is limited by manufacturability of
wood material.

Table 2.6.1 The selection of material and shape for a light and stiff beam

E1 / 2 (E eB )1 / 2
Material ρ (Mg/m3) E (GPa) eB
 
1020 Steel 7.85 205 20 1.8 8.2
AA 6061- T4 2.7 70 15 3.1 12.0
GFRP 1.75 28 8 2.9 8.5
Wood 0.9 13.5 2 4.1 5.8

The combined material index for elastic bending can be rewritten as

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 ( eB E)1 / 2 (E  eB )1 / 2 (E * )1 / 2
M1                               (18)
   eB *
i.e. a material with modulus (E) and density (ρ), when given a particular shape can be thought of
E 
as a new material with modulus (E*)and density (*) presuming E   and ρ*   .
 eB  eB
Figure 2.6.1 shows the elastic modulus vs. density (E vs. ρ) chart with the modified material
properties E* and ρ* plotted into it. Now, the structured material behaves like a new material
with the modified material properties. When the shape factor has not been introduced, the shape

factor takes the position φ = 1. It can be observed that introduction of a shape factor  eB  10
moves the combined material index, M 1 to the lower left along a line of slope 1, from the
position (E, ρ) to the position (E/10, ρ/10).

Figure 2.6.1 Young’s Modulus vs. density chart with the influence of shape factor (  eB ) for
elastic bending [2]

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Example 17: Selection of Material considering shape factor for Failure in Bending
Similar to the previous example, material index for elastic bending can be rewritten as

( fB  f ) 2 / 3 ( f ( fB ) 2 ) 2 / 3 ( f ) 2 / 3
M3           (19)
  ( fB ) 2 *

i.e. a material with failure strength, σ f and density, ρ, when given a particular shape, can be
 f   
envisaged as a new material with modified strength and density as   and    ,
 ( f ) 2   ( f ) 2 
 B   B 
respectively. Figure 2.6.2 shows a typical failure strength (σ f ) vs. density (ρ) chart with the
modified material properties (  f and ρ*) indicated into it. It can be seen in Figure 2.6.2 that the


introduction of a typical shape factor  Bf =√10, moves the combined material index, M 2 to the
lower left along a line of slope 1, from the position ( f , ) to the position (  f 10 ,  10 )

Figure 2.6.2 Strength vs. density chart with the influence of shape factor (  fB ) for failure in
bending [2]

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Exercise
(1) As done in case of bending, explain the procedure for obtaining modified material
properties in case of torsional loading.
(2) Modify all the material indices if the objective is to minimize the cost rather than the
mass [Hint: Assume C m to be cost of material per unit volume.]

References
1. G Dieter, Engineering Design - a materials and processing approach, McGraw Hill, NY,
2000.
2. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.

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 Module
2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

IIT, Bombay 
 
 Lecture
7
Case-Studies-II

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Instructional objectives
By the end of this lecture, the student will learn how to implement compound material indices
for a few practical applications.

Example 18: Spars for man-powered plane

Most of the engineering designs consists of conflicting demands, multiple objectives and a
number of constrains. In designing a spar for typical man-powered plane, the objective is to
make the spar light and stiff to maintain the aerodynamic efficiency of the wings and to keep the
overall weight of aircraft sufficiently light. So, the above problem can be translated into
functional requirement, objective, constraints to be considered, and the free variables that the
designers are allowed to change. Figure 2.7.1 schematically shows a man-powered aircraft
structure with two spars one spanning the wings and the other linking the wings to the tail.

Figure 2.7.1 Schematic picture of a man-powered plane with two spars. Both are to be
designed for stiffness at minimum weight. [2]

Function: Wing Spar of man-powered aircraft

Objective: Minimise mass.
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Bending stiffness is specified.
Free variable: (i) Material, (ii) Section shape and scale

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A material-shape combination is required such that the mass is minimised for a given bending
stiffness. Thus, the combined material index (M 1 ) to be maximised can be given as
( Be E )1 / 2
M1  (1)

Figure 2.7.2 depicts a combination of Young’s Modulus (E) vis-à-vis Density () for several
materials in a graphical form. Some initial choice of material can be made from Figure 2.7.2 for
the wing spar. The dashed line in the figure represents the constant value of the material index
(E)1/ 2  ,  which is  equal to 10. Figure 2.7.2 also demonstrates how consideration of an efficient
shape for a typical material can indicate the superiority of the same material for the given
application. For example, typical tube sections of aluminum alloy confirm to a shape factor of 20

i.e.  eB  20 . If we now consider a modified material index with E   E  eB and     eB ,

and with  eB  20 , the position of the same aluminum alloy shifts to a more preferred location in
the graph as indicated by the arrow. Similarly, if we consider typical box sections in CFRP

(carbon fibre reinforced polymer) with typical  eB  10 , the same material also shifts to a more
preferred location as indicated by the arrow in Figure 2.7.2.

Figure 2.7.2 Graphical representation of Young’s Modulus (E) vis-à-vis Density () for
engineering materials [2]

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Table 2.7.1 presents the analytically computed data of the material indices for a set of seven
chosen materials. If all the materials confirm to the same shape or in other words, no contribution
from the shape factor is considered, Balsa and spruce are significantly superior from the rest of
the materials as can be observed in column 4. However, when the corresponding shape factors
are considered, aluminium becomes marginally better or similar to balsa and spruce while CFRP
appears to the best of all. Obviously, beryllium cannot be considered due to its toxicity although
it yields a very high value of combined material index. Advances in the technology of drawing
thin-walled aluminum tubes allows today highly efficient shape factor that cannot be reproduced
in wood, giving aluminum a performance edge. Further more, CFRP meets the requirements of
lower density and higher modulus. So, CFRP outperforms all other suitable materials.

Table 2.7.1 Candidate materials and corresponding material indices for spars

E1 2 (E eB )1 / 2
Material E (GPa)  (Mg/m3)  eB
 

Balsa 4.20 – 5.20 0.17  0.24 10 2 15

Spruce 9.80 – 11.90 0.36 – 0.44 8 2 12

Steel 200 – 210 7.82 – 7.84 1.8 25 9

AA 7075 T6 71 – 73 2.80 – 2.82 3 20 14

CFRP 100 – 160 1.50 – 1.60 7 10 23

Beryllium 290 – 310 1.82 – 1.86 9.3 15 36

Borosilicate Glass 62 – 64 2.21 – 2.23 3.7 10 11

Example 19: Forks for a racing bicycle

Figure 2.7.3 schematically outlines the forks of typical bicycle. The significant consideration in
design of forks is the strength to avoid yielding during normal use. The loading on the forks are
predominantly bending in nature. Also, the forks should be as light as possible for comfortable
riding. Thus, the design problem is translated into functional requirement, objective, constraints
to be considered, and the free variables that the designers are allowed to change as given below.

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Function: Forks for a racing bicycle.
Objective: Minimise mass
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Bending stiffness is specified.
Free variable: (i) Material, (ii) Section shape and size

Figure 2.7.3 Schematic picture of a bicycle and the forks [2]

The forks of a bicycle can be envisaged as a beam of length L that must carry a maximul load F
without failure. In other words, the forks can be designed as light and strong beams. The
combined material index (M 1 ) to be maximised is given below

( fB  f ) 2 / 3
M1  [2]

where  f is failure strength (ultimate tensile strength or yield strength) of the material,  is the

material density, and fB is the shape factor for failure in bending. Table 2.7.2 enlists seven
possible candidate materials with the corresponding properties. Table 2.7.2 shows that spruce

performs the best when the shape factor is not considered i.e. the material index (  f2 3  )

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without considering the shape factor is the highest. If the shape factor (  fB ) is considered, the
ranking of the materials is changed with CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) as the best
performing material followed by titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) and steel. In strength-limited
applications the performance of magnesium alloys is expected to be poor despite its low density.
In spite of the best performance of CFRP, bicycles are commonly made of steel with
costlier variants in aluminium and titanium alloys. This is primarily due to the fact that steel has
good fracture resistance and excellent manufacturability. The racing bicycles are often made of
CFRP with interleaving of the carbon fibers with layers of glass or Kevlar to improve the
fracture-resistance. Mountain bicycles, for which strength and impact resistance are particularly
important, usually consist of steel or titanium forks.

Table 2.7.2 Candidate materials and corresponding material indices for bicycle forks
f  ( f ) 2 / 3 ( fB  f ) 2 / 3
Material  fB
(MPa) (Mg/m3)  

Spruce 70 – 80 0.46 – 0.56 1 36 36

Bamboo 80 – 160 0.60 – 0.80 2.20 34 59

Steel 770 – 990 7.82 – 7.83 7.50 12 48

AA 6061–T6 240 – 260 2.69 – 2.71 5.90 15 48

Ti-6Al–4V 930 – 980 4.42 – 4.43 5.90 22 72

Magnesium AZ 61 160 – 170 1.80 – 1.81 4.25 17 46

CFRP 300 – 450 1.50 – 1.60 4.25 33 88

Example 20: Floor Joists

Figure 2.7.4 schematically shows the cross-section of typical floor-joists. The floors are
supported by the joists that should withstand a specified bending load without sagging, failure
and sudden fracture. The floor joist materials should be cheap to avoid cost escalation. So, the
above problem can be translated into functional requirement, objective, constraints to be
considered, and the free variables that the designers are allowed to change as given below.

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Function: Floor Joists
Objective: Minimise material cost
Constraints: (i) Length L is specified, (ii) Bending stiffness is specified, and
(iii) Strength specified
Free variable: (i) Material, (ii) Section shape

Figure 2.7.4 Schematic picture of floor joist cross-sections [2]

The floor joist can be envisaged as a beam of length L that must carry a maximul load F without
sagging (i.e. considering stiffness limited design) that leads to a compound material index (M 1 )
including the shape factor, which should be maximized, as

( eB  f )1 / 2
M1  [3]
Cm
where ρ is the density of the material, C m is the material cost (per unit mass). In a similar
manner, the joist can be envisaged as a beam of length L that must carry a maximul load F
without failure (i.e. considering strength limited design) that leads to a compound material index
(M 2 ) including the shape factor, which should be maximized, as

( fB  f ) 2 / 3
M2  [4]
C m
Table 2.7.3 enlists three possible candidate materials with the corresponding properties. Table
2.7.3 shows that wood can be processed to sections that may perform better even compared to
the most efficient I-beam sections in steel. However, wood is a hygroscopic material and
degrades with time. Hence, wood has been used widely in small buildings. However, in large
commercial building, the steel I-beam sections are used as floor joist.

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 Table 2.7.3 Candidate materials and corresponding material indices for floor joists
( f ) 2 / 3
f  (fBf )2 / 3
Material  eB  fB Cm Cm
(MPa) (Mg/m3) Cm

Wood 37 – 45 0.44 - 0.54 2 1.4 0.8-1.2 8.8 38

Bamboo 38 – 42 0.60 - 0.80 3.2 2.2 1.8-2.1 5.4 14.5
Steel (I-Section) 350 – 360 7.90 - 7.91 10 4 0.6-0.7 8.8 24
Al-alloys 240–260 3.26-3.33 31 10 2.05-2.06 5.8 26.8
Stainless Steel 770–990 7.82–7.84 25 13 3.22-3.41 3.33 18.44

Exercise
(1) Select a suitable material for a typical bridge crane. Explain the function, constrain,
objective, free variable clearly and select material index along with shape factor. Use the
material chart given in the modules.
Hint: Figure of a typical bridge crane is given below.

References
1. G Dieter, Engineering Design - a materials and processing approach, McGraw Hill, NY,
2000.
2. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.

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Example 20: Materials and Process Selection for Rowing Oars
Participants: Sushrut Pande (08011008), Mukul Saha (08010036)

Figure 2.7.4 schematically shows the parts of a rowing oar and its maximum allowable deflection
in operation, and also a typical finished pair of rowing oars. The rowing oars should facilitate:
(a) high stiffness to avoid deflection under load, (b) minimum mass to be light enough and
hence, to reduce effort by the rower, (c) enough strength to sustain bending moments in service,
(d) good fracture toughness so as to sustain oar clashes and collision with rocks, and obviously
(e) low cost.

d1 d2

Figure 2.7.4 Schematic picture of parts of a rowing oar and a finished oar

Typically, a rowing oar can be considered as a beam loaded under bending with its collar
[Fig. 2.7.4] constrained / attached to the boat. In service, the spoon that is immersed in water
experiences pressure / bending load. Thus, the design problem is translated into functional
requirement, objective, constraints to be considered, and the free variables that the designers are
allowed to change as given below.
Function: Oars for rowing
Objective: Minimum weight
Constraints: (1) Specified minimum stiffness
(2) Suitable fracture resistance
(3) Low cost
(4) Specified length
Free variable: Area of cross section (A) and material

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Structural Analysis
Let us assume that the total length of the oar equals to (L+d1+d2 = nL) as shown in Fig. 2.7.4
with a circular cross-sectional area of A through the loom. The maximum moment experienced
on the collar of the rowing oar due to the applied load F on spoon will be equal to FL. The
second moment of area (I) of the rowing oar for the assumed section can be considered as
A 2 2 . Subsequently, the selection of material for a rowing oar can be taken further in three
different directions.

[1] Light and Stiff material for a rowing oar

The material index in this case can be considered as M 1  E  for a requisite stiffness (S) of

the rowing oar given as S  C1EA 2 2L3 and writing the mass (m) of the rowing oar as
m  A(nL)  f (geometry)  f (shape)  f (material)

and, further substituting the term A in terms of stiffness. The material index, M 1 , needs to be
maximized.

Figure 2.7.5 Young’s Modulus vis-à-vis density of engineering materials [3]. The red arrow
indicates the direction of increasing values of the material index (M1)

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The best possible materials for a light, stiff rowing oar, we should attempt to pick the materials
in Fig. (2.7.5) with higher values of M1 i.e. materials lying near the top red line. The candidate
materials are CFRP, parallel grain woods and engineering ceramics as apparent in Fig. (2.7.5).

[2] Light and Fracture Resistance material for a rowing oar

The fracture toughness (K 1C ) can be expressed as K 1C  C 2  where  is the applied stress and

C 2 is a constant depending on geometry / shape and the initial crack length. Subsequently, the
toughness (K) can be expressed as K  2C 2 FL A 2 . Next, substituting for A in the following
relation
m  A(nL)  f (geometry)  f (shape)  f (material)

leads to a material index, M 2 , as M1  K 12C/ 3  and the same needs to be maximized. To achieve

the same, we can consider a straight line log(K 1C )  (3 2)(log M 2 )  log  in a typical log-log
chart of fracture toughness vis-à-vis density as shown in Fig. 2.7.6.

Figure 2.7.6 Fracture Toughness vis-à-vis Density of engineering materials [3]. The red
arrow indicates the direction of increasing values of the material index (M2)

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The best possible materials for a light and tough rowing oar, we should attempt to pick the
materials in Fig. (2.7.6) with higher values of M2 i.e. materials lying near the top red line in Fig.
2.7.6 and the candidate materials are CFRP, parallel grain woods and alloy steels.

[3] Cheap and Stiff material for a rowing oar

The cost can be presumed as V  C r where V is the volume and C r is the cost per unit volume.
The corresponding material index can be given as in case [1] with little rearrangement as
M 3  E (  C r ) and the same needs to be maximized. To achieve the same, we can consider a

straight line log(E)  2(log M 3 )  2 log(  C r ) in a typical log-log chart of elastic modulus vis-
à-vis density as shown in Fig. 2.7.7.

Figure 2.7.7 Young’s Modulus vis-à-vis Relative Cost of engineering materials [3]. The red
arrow indicates the direction of increasing values of the material index (M3)

The best possible materials for a cheap and stiff rowing oar, we should attempt to pick the
materials in Fig. (2.7.7) with higher values of M3 i.e. materials lying near the top red line in Fig.

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2.7.7 and some of the candidate materials are porous ceramics, parallel grain woods, cast iron
and steels. Following table (table 2.7.4) provides a comparative performance of several candidate
materials that can be considered based on the above three criteria presumed for the selection
material for a good performing rowing oar.

Table 2.7.4 A comparative assessment of different candidate materials for Rowing oars
 C ( K 1C ) 2 / 3
 E E 0.5 Cr E 0.5
Material 
(MPa m0.5) (kg/m3) (GPa)  ($/m3)     Cr

Parallel-Grained Wood 5 750 10 133 2 3.9 66.67

CFRP 3 1800 100 176 83 1.16 2.11
Alloy Steel 50 7850 200 57 19 1.73 2.98
Ceramics (SiC) 4 3210 400 197 124 0.78 1.58
Polymers (PVC) 1.1 1400 2.5 36 2 0.76 16.67

The ceramics are eliminated because they are brittle and expensive. The CFRP (carbon-fibre-
reinforced polymers) composites offer light, stiff and tough oars but are expensive. The Parallel
grained woods appear to be one of the best choices. Typical Balsa wood, in particular, provides
for highest M 1 and M 2 , but is slightly costly. Assuming the relative importance of stiffness and
toughness are higher than the cost, the Balsa wood offers the best properties for a rowing oar.
The wooden rowing oars typically cost between USD 20 to USD 50. The composite oars, on the
other hand, though very light, stiff and tough, can cost as high as USD 450.

Manufacturing Process

The wooden oars are typically manufactured by the hand craftsmen owing to difficulty in
automating the process and due to the directionality of properties of wood. Moreover, wood,
being hygroscopic, needs to be laminated and sealed with a water-resistant compound like
urethane. The composite oars are typically made of CFRP. They have an elaborate
manufacturing process route involving several processes that may include some of the following
steps.

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 1. Body is manufactured by wrapping flexible sheets of carbon fibre around cylindrical
mandrel, followed by curing in oven.
2. Spoon is manufactured by hot press molding, followed by CNC milling
3. Handle is made on a Lathe.
4. For the purpose of assembly, holes are drilled & epoxy is inserted for complete
bonding.

REFERENCES:
[1] M.F. Ashby and D. Cebon, “Materials Selection in Mechanical Design”, Troisieme
Conference Europeenne sur les Materiaux et les Procedes Avances, Euromat ‘93, Paris, June 8-
10 1993
[2] http://www.engineering.uiowa.edu/~mie032/Support/Homework/HW03-Oar_Design.pdf
[3] http://newsgroups.derkeiler.com/Archive/Rec/rec.sport.rowing/2011-02/msg00169.html
[4] http://rowersworld.com/rowing-equipment
 

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Example 21: Selection of material, shape and process for blades of ceiling fan
Participants: Aniket Chaudhury (113109010), Ashutosh Yetalkar (123100039)

The blades of a typical ceiling fan contribute to its primary function i.e. the circulation of air.
Figure 2.7.8 shows the schematic diagram of the assembly of a ceiling fan along with a typically
finished product.

Figure 2.7.8 Schematic presentation of a ceiling fan

The main function of the fan blades is to provide the flow of air in the downward direction by
creating a pressure difference on the two sides of the blade causing the air to flow from the high
pressure to the low pressure side. Evidently, the blades are primarily under bending loads and
hence, the blades may fail either due to excessive stress or deflection. Considering the fan blades
similar to a cantilever beam, the design problem is translated into functional requirement,
objective, constraints to be considered, and the free variables that the designers are allowed to
change as given below.
Function: Fan blades (analogous to light, low cost beam, which is strong and stiff)
Objective: Minimum mass and cost
Constraints: (1) Length L is specified
(2) Maximum Deflection is specified
(3) Young’s Modulus, E > 50 GPa [considered as a prerequisite to avoid
deflection in service]
Free variable: Material, Manufacturing processes

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Structural Analysis
Let F be the total force acting on the blade of length L, the cross-sectional area A, the second
moment of area I. The mass (m) of a typical fan blade can be given as, m  AL , where ρ is the
density of material and, the net cost (C) of the same can be given as, C  C m AL , where C m is
the cost of material per unit weight (kg). The normal stress ( f ) due to a bending moment (M)
[because of the load (F)] can be considered as  f  M Z , where Z is the section modulus. The

requisite stiffness (S) to avoid deflection can be estimated as S  C1EI L3 , where E is the elastic
modulus of the material being considered.

[1] Light and Strong material for a fan blade

The material index ( M 1 ) in this case can be considered as M1  ( f2 / 3 )  that needs to be
maximized. We can consider a straight line, (2 3) log( f )  (log M 1 )  log() as indicated by the
blue line in Fig. 2.7.9, in a typical log-log chart of failure strength vis-à-vis density [Fig. 2.7.9]
and select a material above the blue line in the direction of the red arrow.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.7.9 Failure strength vis-à-vis density of engineering materials [1]. The red arrow
indicates the direction of increasing values of the material index (M 1 )

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[2] Light, Strong and Economical material for a fan blade
The material index ( M 2 ) in this case can be considered as M 2  ( f2 / 3 ) (C m ) that needs to be
maximized. We can consider a straight line, (2 3) log( f )  (log M 2 )  log(C m ) as indicated by
the blue line in Fig. 2.7.10, in a typical log-log chart of failure strength vis-à-vis relative cost of
engineering material [Fig. 2.7.10] and select a material above the blue line in the direction of the
red arrow.

Figure 2.7.10 Failure strength vis-à-vis relative cost of engineering materials [1]. The red arrow
indicates the direction of increasing values of the material index (M 2 )

[3] Light and Stiff material for a fan blade

The material index ( M 3 ) in this case can be considered as M 3  (E1 / 3 )  [presuming the fan

blade shape as a rectangular panel] that needs to be maximized. We can consider a straight line,
(1 3) log(E)  (log M 3 )  log() as indicated by the blue line in Fig. 2.7.11, in a typical log-log

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chart of elastic modulus vis-à-vis density [Fig. 2.7.11] and select a material above both the blue
line and the yellow line (that indicates a minimum elastic modulus of 50 GPa).

 
Figure 2.7.11 Elastic modulus vis-à-vis density of engineering materials [1]. The yellow line
indicates an elastic modulus of 50 GPa.

[4] Light, Stiff and Economical material for a fan blade

The material index ( M 4 ) in this case can be considered as M 4  (E1 / 3 ) (C m ) [presuming the

fan blade shape as a rectangular panel] that needs to be maximized. We can consider a straight
line, (1 3) log(E )  (log M 4 )  log(C m ) as indicated by the blue line in Fig. 2.7.12, in a typical
log-log chart of elastic modulus vis-à-vis relative cost of engineering materials [Fig. 2.7.12] and
select a material above both the blue and the yellow lines (that indicates a minimum elastic
modulus of 50 GPa). 
 
 

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Figure 2.7.12 Elastic modulus vis-à-vis relative cost of engineering materials [1]. The yellow
line indicates an elastic modulus of 50 GPa.
 
Considering the indicated preferred zones of selectable materials in Figs 2.7.9 to 2.7.12, the
following materials can be shortlisted.
 
Table 2.7.5 A comparative assessment of different candidate materials for fan blades
 E f Cm  f2 / 3  f2 / 3 E1 / 3 E1 / 3
Material  
(Mg/m3) (GPa) (MPa) ($/m3)  C m  C m

105 – 200 – 0.9 – 4.8 – 5.3 – 0.6 – 0.7 –

Steel 7–8
107 1100 1.2 13.3 11.1 0.5 0.4
70 – 30 – 4.8 – 1.6 – 2.1 – 0.7 –
Aluminium Alloys 2–3 3–4
80 400 18.1 4.5 1.4 0.35
CFRP (Carbon fibre 80 – 600 – 20 – 44.46 – 2.2 – 2.6 – 0.1 –
1.6 – 1.7
reinforced composite) 105 1000 30 58.82 1.9 2.7 0.09
100 – 300 – 60 – 11.2 – 0.2 – 1.6 – 0.03 –
Titanium Alloys 4–5
104 1100 70 21.3 0.3 0.9 0.01

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CFRP and Titanium alloys can be eliminated because of high cost as evident from table 2.7.5.
Aluminium is about three times lighter in weight in comparison to steel and hence, the motor
torque required to rotate the blades will be less. Secondly, aluminium is also a better corrosion-
resistant material. Hence, aluminium alloys may be considered as the final material of choice for
making the blades of the ceiling fan.

Consideration of shape for a fan blade

The blades of ceiling fans depict a a certain shape so that it can slice the air during rotation
resulting in the air above and below the blade to move at different speeds leading to a pressure
difference for the air flow to occur. Considering a presumed amplitude of bending of the sheet as
a, the second moment of area (I) can be given as, {( 2a  t ) 2 t} 12 . The same (I 0 ) for a flat sheet of

thickness t can be given as, t 3 12 . Hence, the shape factor of the fan blade in elastic bending (  eB ) can
e 2 2
be estimated as,  B  I I 0  (2a  t ) t . Similarly, the shape factor of the fan blade considering
f
failure in bending (  fB ) can be estimated as,  B  Z Z 0  (2a  t ) t . Considering that the preferred

engineering shape required for the functionality of the fan blades is mandatory and can be produced by
simple bending processes both in steel and aluminum with equal ease, we decide the selection of material
will be governed primarily by the material indices.

Selectio of Manufacturing Process for a fan blade

We want to select the manufacturing process to produce blades of ceiling fan with material
selected as aluminium alloys. The blades are made from flat sheets. The approximated weight of
each blade would be about 0.2 kgs with the section thickness about 1 mm. To identify a suitable
process, we look through the following charts [Figs 2.7.13 – 2.7.16]. The possible areas of
selection are highlighted in Figs 2.7.13 to 2.7.16 indicating the most suitable process as sheet
forming, and in particular, bending. Although the size of the fan blade is small, precaution must
be taken to select the bending process and the process conditions to avoid spring back after
bending

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 Figure 2.7.13 Compatibility charts of process vis-à-vis engineering materials [1]

Figure 2.7.14 Compatibility charts of process vis-à-vis shape of engineering materials [1]

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 Figure 2.7.15 Compatibility charts of process vis-à-vis mass [1]

Figure 2.7.16 Compatibility charts of process vis-à-vis section thickness [1]

References
1) Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Michael F. Ashby, 3rd edition, Elsevier Publication.
2) Basic Guidelines for Plastic Conversion of Metal Axial Flow Fans, BASF Corporation.
3) Spinifex Ceiling Fan Technical Specification Sheet.
4) Weiher, Jochen and Rietman, Bert and Kose, Kim and Ohnimus, Stephan and Petzoldt,
Martin (2004) Controlling SpringbackWith Compensation Strategies. AIP Conference Proceedings,
712 . pp. 1011-1015. ISSN 0094-243X
5) http://www.moorefans.com/pdfs/TMC_661P_.PDF
6) http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/default.html

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