PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Design

• Meaning of Quantitative Research Designs Requirements:

• Types of Quantitative Research Design ✓ Research Paper with Journal Notebook
✓ Compilations of:
Lesson 2: Sampling Procedure and Sample
o Revised Papers (by group)
• Population and Sample o Reports
• Approaches in Identifying Sample Size ✓ Reporting
• Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research ✓ Activities
✓ Quizzes
Lesson 3: Research Instrument, Validity and Reliability ✓ Longtest & Final Exam
• Quantitative Research Instrument
• Characteristics of Good Instrument
• Ways in Developing Research Instrument
• Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research
• Types of Validity
• Reliability of Instrument Reporting:
Written Report
Lesson 4: Research Intervention PPT
Scoring tool
• Nature of Research Intervention
• Steps in Describing the Research Intervention Process Daily Routines
• Determine the Research Intervention Procedure Prayer
Energizer
Lesson 5: Data Collection Procedure
Summary
• Quantitative Data
• Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data
• Three Phases in Data Collection
Lesson 6: Data Analysis

• Planning Your Data Analysis

Lesson 7: Data Collection Instruments

• Research Instruments
• Ethical Considerations in Data Collection of Quantitative Research
Lesson 8: Data Presentation and Interpretation

• Techniques in Data Processing

• Presentation and Interpretation of Data
Lesson 9: Using Statistical Techniques to Analyze the Data

• Statistical Techniques
Lesson 10: Drawing Conclusions

• Guidelines in Writing Your Conclusions

• Research Implications
Lesson 11: Formulating Recommendations

• Research Recommendations
• Guidelines in Writing Your Recommendations

Prepared by:

JIMNAIRA U. ABANTO
Subject Teacher
Rubrics for Reporting:
➢ 30% SPEAKING SKILLS
o Delivery (presenter doesn’t rush, shows enthusiasm, uses complete sentences)
o Eye contact (presenter keeps head up, does not read, and speaks to whole audience)
o Posture(presenter stands up straight, faces audience, and doesn’t fidget)
o Volume(presenter can be easily heard by all)
➢ 50% CONTENT
o Introduction (presentation begins with a comprehensive outline and clear expectation)
o Topic Development
▪ Presentation includes all elements within the concept of the title
▪ Presentation is clearly organized. (material is logically sequenced, related to the outline, and not
repetitive)
▪ Presentation shows full grasp and understanding of the material
➢ 20% Conclusion
o Presentation highlights key ideas and concludes with a strong final statement
o Presenter answers questions easily and confidently (has clear mastery of the subject)
Group No.
Lesson:
Reporters’ Speaking Introduction Topic Conclusion Total Remarks/Comment/Suggestions
Name Skills (10%) Development (20%) (100%)
(30%) (40%)

Rubrics for Teamwork (Research Paper)

Group no.
Members Attendance Accountability Communication Adjusting Timely Total
submission 50/50
 LESSON 1: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

• Meaning of Quantitative Research Designs

When a man decides to build a house, does not he draws first the blue print before he will start to do the work? Same with
the conduct of research, the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and data analysis is drawn as a pattern to follow.
Furthermore, research designs enable the researcher to obtain a more valid, objective, reliable, and accurate answers to the
research questions.
Research design is defined as the logical and coherent overall strategy that the researcher uses to integrate all the components
of the research study (Barrot, 2017, p 102). In order to find meaning in the overall process of doing your research study, a
step-by-step process will be helpful to you.
In quantitative research, you are going to have a great deal of abstraction and numerical analysis. According to Fraenkel
and Wallen (2007, p 15), the research designs in quantitative research are mostly pre-established. Hence having an
appropriate research design in quantitative research, the researcher will have a clearer comprehension of what he is trying
to analyze and interpret.

• Types of Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative Research Designs have five general classifications: descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-
experimental, and experimental.
1. Descriptive Research. When little is known about the research problem, then it is appropriate to use descriptive research
design. It is a design that is exploratory in nature. The purpose of descriptive research is basically to answer questions such
as who, what, where, when, and how much. So this design is best used when the main objective of the study is just to observe
and report a certain phenomenon as it is happening.
2. Correlational Research. The main goal of this design is to determine if variable increases or decreases as another variable
increases or decreases. This design seeks to establish an association between variables. It does not seek cause and effect
relationship like descriptive research; it measures variables as it occurs. It has two major purposes: (a) to clarify the
relationship between variables and (b) predict the magnitude of the association. However, the extent of the purpose of
correlational research depends on the scope and delimitation of the study.
3. Ex Post Facto. If the objective of the study is to measure a cause from a pre-existing effects, then Ex Post Facto research
design is more appropriate to use. In this design, the researcher has no control over the variables in the research study. Thus,
one cannot conclude that the changes measured happen during the actual conduct of the study.
The last two types of quantitative research designs are identifiable for the existence of treatment or intervention applied to
the current research study. Intervention or treatment pertains to controlling or manipulating the independent variable in an
experiment. It is assumed that the changes in dependent variables were caused by the independent variable.
There are also two groups of subjects, participants, or respondents in quasi- experimental and experimental research. The
treatment group refers to the group subjected to treatment or intervention. The group not subject to treatment or intervention
is called the control group.
4. Quasi-Experimental. The term means partly, partially, or almost – pronounced as kwahz-eye. This research design aims
to measure the causal relationship between variables. The effect measured is considered to have occurred during the conduct
of the current study. The partiality of quasi-experimental design comes from assigning subjects, participants, or respondents
into their groups. The groups are known to be already established before the study, such as age educational background and
nationality. Since the assignment of subjects, participants, or respondents are not randomly assigned into an experimental
or control groups, the conclusion of results is limited.
5. Experimental Research. This research design is based on the scientific method called experiment with a procedure of
gathering data under a controlled or manipulated environment. It is also known as true experimental design since it applies
treatment and manipulation more extensively compared to quasi-experimental design. Random assignment of subjects or
participants into treatment and control group is done increasing the validity of the study. Experimental research, therefore,
attempts to affect a certain variable by directly manipulating the independent variable.

LESSON 2: SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND SAMPLE

• Population and Sample

The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the population of the topic of interest. The population is the
totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is understood that this population
possesses common characteristics about which the research aims to explore. There are two types of population: target
population and accessible population. The actual population is the target population, for example, all Senior High School
Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of Cagayan de Oro City.
While the accessible population is the portion of the population in which the researcher has reasonable access, for example
all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand at Marayon Science High School – X.
When the whole population is too costly or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then, a sample representative is
identified. Sampling pertains to the systematic process of selecting the group to be analyzed in the research study. The goal
is to get information from a group that represents the target population. Once a good sample is obtained, the generalizability
and applicability of findings increases.
The representative subset of the population refers to the sample. All the 240 Senior High School Students enrolled in
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Strand in a school, for example, constitute the population; 60
of those students constitute the sample. A good sample should have characteristics of the represented population –
characteristics that are within the scope of the study with fair accuracy.
Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable the sample be, but still, it will depend on the scope and delimitation and
research design of the study.

• Approaches in Identifying Sample Size

Heuristics. This approach refers to the rule of the thumb for sample size. The early established approach by Gay (1976)
stated by Cristobal and Dela Cruz-Cristobal (2017, p172), sample sizes for different research designs are the following:

Lunenberg and Irby (2008), as cited by Barrot (2017, p 107), also suggested different sample sizes for each quantitative
research design.

Literature Review. Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and studies to your current research study.
Since you are done writing your review of related literature and studies, you might want to recall how these studies
determine sample size.
Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure. Formulas. Formulas are also being established for
the computation of an acceptable sample size. The common formula is Slovin’s Formula.

Power Analysis. This approach is founded on the principle of power analysis. There are two principles you need to
consider if you are going to use this approach: these are statistical power and effect size.
 • Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research
Simple Random Sampling. It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of the accessible population are given
an equal chance to be selected. There are various ways of obtaining samples through simple random sampling. These are
fish bowl technique, roulette wheel, or use of the table of random numbers. This technique is also readily available online.
Visit this link https://www.randomizer.org/ to practice.
Stratified Random Sampling. The same with simple random sampling, stratified random sampling also gives an equal
chance to all members of the population to be chosen.
However, the population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the samples. The samples are chosen from
these subgroups and not directly from the entire population. This procedure is best used when the variables of the study are
also grouped into classes such as gender and grade level.
You can simply follow the steps from this given example:

The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total accessible sample size. The percentage result of members per
subgroup will be multiplied from the computed total sample size. After obtaining the sample size per strata, then simple
random sampling will be done for the selection of samples from each group.

Cluster Sampling. This procedure is usually applied in large-scale studies, geographical spread out of the population is a
challenge, and gathering information will be very time-consuming. Similar to stratified random sampling, cluster sampling
also involves grouping of the population according to subgroups or clusters. It is a method where multiple clusters of people
from the chosen population will be created by the researcher in order to have homogenous characteristics.
Systematic Sampling. This procedure is as simple as selecting samples every nth (example every 2nd, 5th) of the chosen
population until arriving at a desired total number of sample size. Therefore, the selection is based on a predetermined
interval. Dividing the population size by the sample size, the interval will be obtained. For example, from a total population
of 75, you have 25 samples; using systematic sampling, you will decide to select every 3rd person on the list of individuals.

LESSON 3: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

• Quantitative Research Instrument

Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific research problems. Common instruments
are performance tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation checklist. The first two instruments are usually used in
quantitative research, while the last two instruments are often in qualitative research. However, interviews and observation
checklists can still be used in quantitative research once the information gathered is translated into numerical data.

• Characteristics of Good Instrument

Concise. Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick the answer without even reading
it? A good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data.
Sequential. Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from simplest to the most complex.
In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the respondents to answer.
Valid and reliable. The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more appropriate and accurate
information.
Easily tabulated. Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this factor should be considered.
Hence, before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the variable and research questions are established.
These will be an important basis for making items in the research instruments.

• Ways in Developing Research Instrument

There are three ways you can consider in developing the research instrument for your study.
✓ First is adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies.
✓ The second way is modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the exact data that
will answer the research problem.
✓ And the third way is when the researcher made his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and scope of his
current study.

• Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research

Likert Scale. This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked to rate or rank statements
according to the scale provided.
Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of students towards distance learning.

Semantic Differential. In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This scale seems to be
more advantageous since it is more flexible and easy to construct.

Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to establish its validity and reliability.
 • Types of Validity
Validity
A research instrument is considered valid if it measures what it supposed to measure.
When measuring oral communication proficiency level of students, speech performance using rubric or rating scale is more
valid than students are given multiple choice tests.
Validity also has several types: face, content, construct, concurrent, and predictive validity.
Face Validity. It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments as it “appear.” Just
by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.
Content Validity. An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the study. It is done by checking
the statements or questions if this elicits the needed information. Experts in the field of interest can also provide specific
elements that should be measured by the instrument.
Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of the study. It is
concerning if a specific measure relates to other measures.
Concurrent Validity. When the instrument can predict results similar to those similar tests already validated, it has
concurrent validity.
Predictive Validity. When the instrument is able to produce results similar to those similar tests that will be employed in
the future, it has predictive validity. This is particularly useful for the aptitude test.

• Reliability of Instrument
Reliability refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument.
Test-retest Reliability. It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents twice. The consistency of
the two scores will be checked.
Equivalent Forms Reliability. It is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings to the same group
of respondents.
Internal Consistency Reliability. It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is reasonable that when
a respondent gets a high score in one item, he will also get one in similar items. There are three ways to measure the internal
consistency; through the split-half coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-Richardson formula.

LESSON 4: RESEARCH INTERVENTION

• Nature of Research Intervention

In experimental research, the researcher decides the nature of intervention or treatment. Intervention pertains to what is
going to happen to the subjects of the study. This decision covers who will receive the intervention and to what extent it
will be applied to them.
For example, in a study of determining the effects of special tutorial program to learners’ at risk of failing (LARF),
researcher decides the group of LARF who will receive intervention. In this example, a special tutorial program is the
research intervention. Furthermore, the extent to which the program will be administered to the learners is determined.

• Steps in Describing the Research Intervention Process

A section that explains the details of research intervention is added in the research paper if it is an experimental design. In
this section, the procedure of research intervention is explained clearly.
✓ Write the Background Information. It is an introductory paragraph that explains the relevance of the intervention to
the study conducted. It also includes the context and duration of the treatment.

✓ Describe the Differences and Similarities between the Experimental and Control Group. State what will happen and
what will not both in the experimental and control groups. This will clearly illustrate the parameters of the research
groups.

✓ Describe the Procedures of the Intervention. In particular, describe how will the experimental group receive or
experience the condition. It includes how will the intervention happens to achieve the desired result of the study.
For example, how will the special tutorial program will take place?
 ✓ Explain the Basis of Procedures. The reason for choosing the intervention and process should clear and concrete
reasons. The researcher explains why the procedures are necessary. In addition, the theoretical and conceptual basis
for choosing the procedures is presented to establish the validity of the procedures.

LESSON 5: DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

• Quantitative Data
Generally, data are any pieces of information or facts that people have known. Once these data answers the research problem,
it becomes helpful to research. When research data appears to be measurable in the numerical form, it is considered
quantitative data. However, some qualitative data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given a numerical
value. For example, if you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant learning, if it is categorized and
numbered accordingly, then it can be quantified during analysis.

• Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data

The following are the common quantitative data gathering technique. Each technique corresponds to specific instrument.
Observation. It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses. The researcher records the observation
as seen and heard. This is done by direct observation or indirect observation by the use of gadgets or apparatus. An
observation checklist aid the researcher in recording the data gathered.
Survey. Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you use series of questions
or statements that respondents will have to answer. Basically, respondents write or choose their answer from given choices.
On the other hand, interview is when you ask respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are doing quantitative
research, it is expected that responses have numerical value either it is nominal or ordinal in form.
Experiment. When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed in the previous lesson that it would use
treatment or intervention. After the chosen subjects, participants, or respondents undergone the intervention, the effects of
such treatment will be measured.

• Three Phases in Data Collection

In doing research, data collection is a major component of research. Neglecting to clarify the collection procedure would
result in acquiring inaccurate data that will make you research study invalid. Hence, the data collection procedure is given
meticulous attention to gather appropriate data. You are making sure that data you will gather answers to your research
questions.
The data gathering procedure is presented in a paragraph format in your research paper. Basically, the contents are the steps
you are going to follow: (1) before you will gather the data, (2) what to do during the actual gathering of data, and (3) the
things to consider after data has been gathered. The following are the suggested steps but not limited to it, are the procedures
in gathering quantitative data.

LESSON 6: DATA ANALYSIS

Data Analysis
Data analysis in research is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such a manner that it will yield
answers to the research questions. During quantitative data analysis gathered information were break down and ordered into
categories in order to draw trends or patterns in a certain condition. In quantitative research, the numerical data collected is
not taken as a whole. In order to understand it better, it is analyze into components based on the chosen research variables
and research questions you are going to answer.
These numerical data are usually subject to statistical treatment depending on the nature of data and the type of research
problem presented. The statistical treatment makes explicit the different statistical methods and formulas needed to analyze
the research data.

• Planning Your Data Analysis

Before choosing what statistical test is appropriate for your research study it is important to determine what statistical
formation is applicable to your current study. In immersing yourself into planning your data analysis, you have to decide
what basic descriptive statistical technique you are going to use. Although this technique does not give you the degree of
association or effect between variables, this will help you to code and simply tabulate your data.
Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a summary of the ordered or sequenced data from your research sample.
Frequency distribution, measure of central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and standard deviation are the sets of data
from descriptive statistics. Inferential Statistics is used when the research study focuses on finding predictions; testing
hypothesis; and finding interpretations, generalizations, and conclusions. Since this statistical method is more complex and
has more advanced mathematical computations, you can use computer software to aid your analysis.
You also have to identify types of statistical analysis of variable in your quantitative research. An univariate analysis
means analysis of one variable. Analysis of two variables such as independent and dependent variables refers to bivariate
analysis while the multivariate analysis involves analysis of the multiple relations between multiple variables.
Furthermore, selecting what test to use is basically done by identifying whether you will use parametric test or non-
parametric test. As these were already discussed in your Statistics and Probability subject, a summary of what to consider
is presented below:

In addition, in choosing statistical techniques in quantitative research, the purpose or objective of the research study
should be considered.
Test of Relationship between Two Variables
Pearson’s r (parametric)
Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One Group
T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
McNemar change test (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two Different Groups
T-test for independent samples (parametric)
Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable)
Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)
Test More than Two Population Means
Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric)
Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact
Regression (parametric)
 LESSON 7: DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
Collecting data is the first step you need to perform before you proceed in writing your data analysis and interpretation.
Data Collection involves obtaining relevant information regarding the specified research questions or objectives. This can
be done by utilizing research instruments that are either developed or adopted. In collecting the data, the researcher must
decide on the following questions:
(1) Which data to collect?
(2) How to collect the data?
(3) Who will collect the data?
(4) When to collect the data? (Barrot, 2018,p138).
Quantitative research instruments comprise questionnaires, interviews, tests, and observation. On the other hand, data
collection approaches for qualitative research usually involve: (a) direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis,
(b) and or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting. When developing and utilizing a research instrument, the
following steps are to be considered:
1. Be clear with your research question.
2. Plan how you will conduct the data collection.
3. Use appropriate research instruments.
4. Collect, tabulate, tally, and analyze the data.
5. Verify the validity and reliability of the collected data.
6. Present your findings.

• Research Instruments
Questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of a series of questions about a research topic to gather data from the participants. It consists of
indicators that is aligned to the research questions. Gathering of information can be carried out in the following methods:
face to face, by telephone, or through e-mail, messenger, social media post, or using computer programs or forms (Barrot,
2018, p 138).
In quantitative research, questionnaires use the following approaches: (1) scale (usually Likert scale); and (2) conversion of
responses into numerical values, e.g. strongly as 5, agree as 4, neutral as 3, disagree as 2, and strongly disagree as 1. The
terms survey and questionnaire have different meanings. A questionnaire is an instrument used to collect data while a survey
is a process of collecting, recording, and analyzing data. Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
There are three structures of making a questionnaire. The first, structured questionnaires employ closed-ended questions.
Unstructured questionnaires, on the other hand, use open-ended questions in which the research participants can freely
answer and put his thoughts into it. Lastly, semi-structured questionnaires are combinations of both the structured and
unstructured ones. Structured type is commonly used in quantitative studies because it is easier to code, interpret objectively,
and, most of all, easier to standardize.
Advantages of Using Questionnaire
1. Data can be quickly gathered from a big number of participants.
2. The participants are encouraged to be open to the researchers since their identity can be made anonymous.
Disadvantages of Using Questionnaire
1. The questions can be interpreted differently by the participants.
2. Some participants will not be able to complete the required responses.
3. Some questionnaires will not be returned on time.
4. Some questionnaires will be lost.
5. The answers from participants may lack depth.
Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection
1. Choose the method of administering the questionnaire.
a. Face-to-face Method. Use this when you need to capture the emotions, behavior, and non-verbal cues of the participants
b. Online Method. Use this when behavior and non-verbal cues need not to be taken
2. Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts.
a. Personal information. This section which contains background information of the participants. (Names are optional)
b. Main section. This lists the specific questions or indicators.
c. Open-ended question section. This contains additional information that might be needed. (This applied only for
quantitative research)
3. Make sure to craft questions and choices that are aligned with specific research questions or objectives.
4. Provide specific and clear directions for respondents in answering the questionnaire.
5. Use routing (directing) technique if there is a need to skip some items in the questionnaire.
6. Begin with the general questions first followed by the specific ones.
7. Prefer to have brief, clear, and concise questionnaire. Use simple terms.
8. Predetermined responses or choices should match the nature of the questions.
a. If the content is about belief, use agreement (strongly agree , agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree)
b. If the questionnaire is about behavior, use extent (very great extent, great extent, moderate extent, small extent, none at
all)
c. If questions are about frequency, use frequency (always, frequently, sometimes, seldom, never)
d. If the content is about quality, use quality (excellent, very good, good, poor) Later, these responses will be translated into
numerical values (e.g. five-point Likert scale)
9. Avoid negative statements unless necessary.
10. Avoid leading and biased, double-barreled, and very sensitive questions.
11. Do not split the questions or choices over two pages.
12. If possible, schedule an appointment before distributing the questionnaires.
13. Attach a cover letter to the questionnaire especially for agency connected respondents.
14. Make a follow-up on the participants who did not to return the questionnaire.
15. Tally and encode the data immediately once you have collected them and archive them digitally.
Tests
Tests are used for assessing various skills and types of behavior as well as for describing some characteristics. There are
two types of test used in quantitative research: Standardized test and Non-standardized test.
Standardized test is scored uniformly across different areas and groups. It is usually administered by institutions to assess
a wide range of groups such as students and test-takers. It is considered as more reliable and valid. Examples are
Achievement test, University Entrance Exam, Personality Tests, and the likes.
Non-standardized test may not be scored uniformly. It is administered to a certain set of people.
Types of Test Questions
1. Recall Questions. It requires participants to retrieve information from memory (e.g. fill- in-the blank test, identification
test, enumeration test, etc.)
2. Recognition Questions. It provides respondents to select from given choices the best or correct choice (e.g. multiple-
choice test, true or false test, yes or no test, etc.)
3. Open-ended Questions. It allows the respondents more freedom in their responses, expressing their thoughts and insights
(e.g. essay writing tests and other performance-based tests.
Interview
A quantitative interview is a method of collecting data about an individual’s behaviors, opinions, values, emotions, and
demographic characteristics using numerical data.
Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Interviews

Observation
Observation is another method of collecting data that is frequently used in qualitative research. However, it can be used in
quantitative research when the observable characteristics are quantitative in nature (e.g. length, width, height, weight,
volume, area, temperature, cost, level, age, time, and speed)
Observation allows the researcher to observe the actual event or phenomenon. It has greater flexibility in the observation
method. However, observation may lack participant validity and may be prone to the Hawthorne effect phenomenon.
Furthermore, it is more exhausting and time-consuming especially when observations need to be conducted for many years).
Forms of Observation
1. Controlled Observation. It is usually used in experimental research and is done under a standard procedure. It provides
more reliable data (obtained through structured and well-defined process). The procedure can be replicated, and the data are
easier to analyze. Lastly, the observer performs a non-participant role (i.e. does not interact with the participants).
2. Natural Observation. It is carried out in a non-controlled setting. It has greater ecological validity (i.e. flexibility of the
findings to be generalized to real-life contexts). It also responds to other areas of inquiry not initially intended by the
researcher. Its major limitation is its strength to establish a causal relationship due to the presence of extraneous variables
which can affect the behavior of the participants
3. Participant Observation. It allows the observer to become a member of the group or community that the participants
belong to. It can be performed covertly (i.e. participants are not aware of the purpose behind the observation. It can be done
also overtly, wherein participants know the intention or objectives of the observation

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection of Quantitative Research

Ethical considerations should always be practiced especially when human participants are involved. Researchers ensure that
participants are treated properly; especially during data collection. The use of consent form respects the right of every
participant to be informed and to make voluntary participation.
Informed Consent Form is a document that provides the participants with the information they need in deciding whether
they will participate or not in your study. The informed consent form must be accomplished before gathering data from the
participants. This document must be signed both by the researcher and the participant as they agree to the conditions during
the actual conduct of the data collection process. It usually contains the following:
1. Background of your study (Title of the Study, Purpose of the Study)
2. Name of Researchers and the Institution you are affiliated with
3. Data Collection Procedure
4. Possible discomfort or risk factors
5. Anonymity of the participants and their responses
6. Termination of Research (may refuse to participate anytime)
7. Authorization of the Participants (participants acknowledge the conditions that they will be subject to the study)
Sample Informed Consent
RESEARCH SUBJECT INFORMED CONSENT
To the participants:
Read this consent form and ask questions and clarifications before you decide to participate in this study or not. You
are also free to ask questions during your participation in this research.
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Project Information
Research Title: IMPROVING SPEED AND ACCURACY IN MATH PROBLEM-SOLVING USING THE
SINGAPOREAN METHOD AMONG GRADE 7 STUDENTS OF CNNHS-X
Researcher: Rico A. Lopez Phone: 09283434567/856-3454
School: Chicken Nuggets National High School-X Department: Senior High School

1. PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH STUDY

You are asked to participate in a research study that seeks to offer a Singaporean Method in solving
mathematical problems. The Singaporean method is a method that aims to develop speed and accuracy in solving
problems in mathematics. Additionally, the study aims to determine the effectiveness of the Singaporean Method in
solving mathematical problems.
Specifically, this study aims to answer the following questions: (1) Is there a significant difference between the
learner’s problem-solving skill during the pretest and the posttest? (2) Is there a significant difference between the
scores of the learners in rating their problem-solving skill before and after introduced to the Singaporean Method? (3)
Is there a significant difference in the problem-solving performance and the self-report scores between the control and
experimental group?

2. PROCEDURES
You will be asked to use the workbook prepared by the Math Society and attend the math class at the
Computer Laboratory. You will also be interviewed via Focus Group Discussion to obtain information regarding your
reactions or responses to the approach.
Specifically, you will be asked to do the following: (1) You will be asked to attend the Math class that uses the
Singaporean approach for the whole term. (2) You will be interviewed by your Math teacher for two (2) hours about
your responses regarding the Singaporean approach of learning Mathematics and the challenges you encounter using
this approach.
The expected duration of your participation is from October 2020 to January 2021.

3. POSSIBLE RISKS OR DISCOMFORTS

No possible risks can pose danger to you in any form during the conduct of this study. The implementation
of the method may last for three (3) months or approximately 12 weeks and the interview may last for two hours.
 4. POSSIBLE BENEFITS
The findings of this research will benefit your teachers in expanding their teaching practices to effectively deal
with developing a very potential problem-solving skill among its learners. This study is also useful for both public
and private school administrators in the country in preparing a math curriculum with an intervention that is anchored
upon the result of this study to develop and enhance the problem-solving skills among high school students.

5. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS
No amount will be required from you during your participation in this study.

6. CONFIDENTIALITY
Your identity in this study will be treated with utmost confidentiality. The results will be published for
academic purposes only. However, any data obtained as a result of your participation in this study may be checked
by the sponsor, by the person conducting this study and or by the research panelists.

7. TERMINATION OF RESEARCH STUDY

You are free to choose whether or not to participate in this study. There will be no penalty if you choose not
to participate. You may withdraw from your participation at any time without penalty.

8. AVAILABLE SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Any further questions you have about this study will be answered by the researcher.

9. AUTHORIZATION
I have read and understood this consent form, and I volunteer to participate in this research study. I understand that
I will receive a copy of this form. I voluntarily choose to participate, but I understand that my consent does not take
away any legal rights in the case of negligence or other legal fault by anyone who is involved in this study. I further
understand that nothing in this consent form is intended to replace any applicable laws.

________________________________________
Participant’s Signature Over Printed Name
Date: ___________________________________

________________________________________
Parent’s/Guardian’s Signature Over Printed Name (if underage)
Date: ___________________________________

________________________________________
Researcher’s Signature Over Printed Name
Date: ___________________________________

LESSON 8: DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

The following are the significant steps you need to take note in preparing and writing your data analysis after gathering the
data:
(1) encode and organize your data for analysis according to the data asked by your research questions;
(2) use your data for statistical tests you have identified in Module 4. You may ask assistance from your statistics and
research teacher;
(3) present the result in tabular or graphical form appropriate for your data and research purpose;
(4) write the interpretation for each table or graph highlighting the significant results and its implications;
(5) support your findings from relevant literature and studies you have cited in the Chapter 2 of your research paper; and
(6) edit the grammatical and typographical errors in your interpretation. You may use www.grammarly.com to edit your
work.
(7) Submit your work using the format given to you. Remember the institutional format of your school.

• Techniques in Data Processing

Remember to organize your data based on your research questions. The data processing involves three actions: editing,
coding, and tabulation.
Editing is a process wherein the collected data are checked. At this stage, handling data with honesty should be employed.
When you edit it is expected that you will not change, omit, or makeup information if you think that the data you collected
is insufficient or does not meet your personal expectations. The main purpose of editing is for checking the consistency,
accuracy, organization, and clarity of the data collected. Data editing can be done manually like traditional tallying or with
the assistance of a computer or combination of both.
Coding is a process wherein the collected data are categorized and organized. It is usually done in qualitative research. In
quantitative research, coding is done to assign numerical value to specific indicator especially if it is qualitative in nature.
This numerical value will be useful when you are going to analyze your data using statistical tool. Just make sure that the
categories created are aligned with your research questions. Consider the following example.

Tabulation is a process of arranging data. In many studies, table is used to do this process. Tabulation can done manually
or electronically using MS Excel. Again organize the data based on your research questions. Before inputting your data into
the table, it will be helpful to review your statistics class on how to arrange data according to the statistical techniques you
will use. Take note that the digital tool you are going to use will also matter on how you are going to tabulate your data;
like MS Excel, Minitab, or other digital tools have different ways of entering your data. Correct arrangement of your data
will be helpful during actual data analysis.

• Presentation and Interpretation of Data

The next step after editing, coding, and tabulating the data is to present them into graphical or visual presentation called
non-prose materials. The purpose of presenting the data in this way is to make the outlined of the results more presentable.
Non-prose materials are composed of graphs, bars, tables, charts, diagrams, illustrations, drawings, and maps.
In quantitative research, tables and graphs are usually used. Standard format in presenting the data into a table or a graph
like its title, labels, contents, and many more can be followed as well when school institutional format is not provided or
identified. You may visit APA, CMOS, or MLA on how to do so.
Tables
Table helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows. It contains headings that indicate the most important
information about your study.
To interpret the tables, one needs to do the following:
1. Analyze the connections among the details of the headings.
2. Check the unusual pattern of the data and determine the reason behind these.
3. Begin with the table number and the title.
4. Present the significant figures (overall results, high and low values, the unusual pattern).
5. Refrain from repeating again what’s inside the table.
6. Support your findings with literature and studies that confirms or contrasts your results.
7. Establish the practical implications of the results. This will add value to your research findings.
8. End with a brief generalization.
Sample Interpretation for the Given Table
Graphs
Graphs focuses on how a change in one variable relates to another. Graphs use bars, lines, circles, and pictures in
representing the data. In interpreting the graph, it is the same process in table. In choosing what type of graph to use,
determine the specific purpose of the presentation. Line Graph illustrates trends and changes in data over time, Bar Graph
illustrates comparisons of amounts and quantities, while Pie Graph (Circle Graph) displays the relationship of parts to a
whole.

LESSON 9: USING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES TO ANALYZE THE DATA

• Statistical Techniques
1. Percentage is any proportion from the whole.
2. Mean or average is the middlemost value of your list of values and this can be obtained by adding all the values and
divide the obtained sum to the number of values.

3. Standard Deviation shows the spread of data around the mean.

One need to get the range from which the mean of a five-point Likert can be interpreted. There are two methods to do this,
if we treat the Likert scale as interval/ratio. First, the usual way is to calculate the interval by computing the range (e.g. 5−
1 = 4), then divided it by the maximum value (e.g. 4 ÷ 5 = 0.80). Ultimately, we get the following result:
From 1 to 1.80 represents (strongly disagree).
From 1.81 to 2.60 represents (do not agree).
From 2.61 to 3.40 represents (true to some extent).
From 3:41 to 4:20 represents (agree).
From 4:21 to 5:00 represents (strongly agree).
The other way is to treat the selection as the range themselves, and so we get these results:
From 0.01 to 1.00 is (strongly disagree);
From 1.01 to 2.00 is (disagree);
From 2.01 to 3.00 is (neutral);
From 3.01 to 4:00 is (agree);
From 4.01 to 5.00 is (strongly agree)

4. Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r) is a statistical method used to estimate the strength of relationship between two
quantitative variables.

Step 1. Compute the value of r using the Pearson’s r formula.

Step 2. From the table of values, there is a strong positive correlation between the grade in Math and the grade in English.
5. Regression Analysis is can be used to explain the relationship between dependent and independent variables.
Three major uses:
a. Causal analysis -shows you the possible causation of changes in Y by changes X.
b. Forecasting an Effect- allows you estimate and predict the value of Y given the value of X.
c. Linear Trend Forecasting- helps you trace the line best fit to tine series

Example:
Using the same data from Table 3, answer the following questions:
a. What linear equation best predicts the grade in English given the grade in Math?

Step 2: Substitute the value of m and b to the regression formula. The regression equation for predicting the grade
in English given the grade in Math is Y = X + 1.
 b. If a student made a grade of 91 in Math, what grade would you expect the student to obtain in English?
Using the obtain equation Y = X + 1, substitute 91 in X.
Y = 91 + 1 = 92 (Grade in English)

According to this model, for every 1point increase in the Math grade, there is a corresponding average increase of
1 point in the English grade.

c. How well does the regression equation fit the data?

Interpretation:
The Math grade is directly proportional to the English grade because the slope is positive.
6. Hypothesis testing. A hypothesis test helps you determine some quantity under a given assumption. The outcome of the
test tells you whether the assumption holds or whether the assumption has been violated.
In first quarter, you were exposed to creating your Null hypothesis (H0) which states that there is no difference between the
two values or variables and the Alternative hypothesis (H1) which states that there is a difference between two values or
variables.
The statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to decide about whether the null hypothesis should be rejected. In
a one-tailed test (left-tailed or right-tailed test), when the test value falls in the critical region on one side of the mean, the
null hypothesis should be rejected.
On the other hand, in a two-tailed test, the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test value falls in either of the two
critical regions.

To perform hypothesis testing, you compute the mean from the sample and compare it with the mean from the population.
Then, you decide whether to reject or not reject the null hypothesis. If the difference is significant, the null hypothesis is
rejected. If the difference is not significant, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. In the hypothesis- testing, there are four
possible results.
The four possibilities are as follows:
1. It would be an incorrect decision and would result in a Type I error when you reject the null hypothesis when it is true.
2. It would be a correct decision when you reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
3. It would be a correct decision when you do not reject the null hypothesis when it is true.
4. It would be an incorrect decision and would result in a Type II error when you do not reject the null hypothesis when it
is false.
The basic format for hypothesis testing:
1. State the hypotheses and identify them.
2. Find the critical value(s).
3. Compute the test value.
4. Make the decision.
5. Summarize the result.
Hypothesis testing can be done using the following t-value approach or critical value approach and p-value approach.
1. The Critical Value Approach is used to determine whether the observed test statistic is more extreme than a defined
critical value. Hence, the observed test statistic (calculated on the basis of sample data) is compared to the critical value,
from t-table. If the test statistic (t∗) is more extreme than the critical value (t), the null hypothesis is rejected. If the test
statistic is not as extreme as the critical value, the null hypothesis is not rejected.

Example:
A random sample of 10 Grade 7 students has grades in Math, where marks range from 90 (Good) to 98 (Excellent). The
general average grade (Gen. Ave.) of all Grade 7 students as of the last 5 years is 93. Is the Gen. Ave. of the 10 Grade 7
students different from the population’s Gen. Ave? Use 0.05 level of significance.

Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
H0: There is no significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students from the population’s gen. average of
93.
H0: μ = 93
H1: There is a significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students from the population’s gen. average of
93.
H1: μ ≠ 93
2. State the alpha and the degree of freedom.
α = 0.05
Df = n − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9
3. State the decision rule.

4. Calculate the Test Statistic.

5. State results (use t table to get the critical value, see procedure below).

6. Decision: Accept Ho
7. Conclusion: Therefore, the average grade of 10 Grade 7 students is not different from the population’s average grade in
Math which is 93.
2. P-value Approach involves determining the probability (assuming the null hypothesis were true) of observing a more
extreme test statistic in the direction of the alternative hypothesis than the one observed. If the P-value is less than (or equal
to) α then the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. And, if the P-value is greater than α, then the
null hypothesis is not rejected.
Example:
Use the same data from Example 1 of Critical value approach:

5. Use statistical software or an online calculator (https://www.statology.org/t-score-p-value- calculator/) to find the

corresponding p-value.
One-tailed P-value: 0.13412
Two-tailed P-value: 0.26825
6. State results.
One-tailed |0.13412| > 0.05
Two-tailed |0.26825| > 0.05
7. Decision: Accept H0
Since this p-value is not less than our chosen alpha level of 0.05, we can’t reject the null hypothesis.
8. Conclusion: Therefore, the average grade of 10 Grade 7 students is not different from the population’s average grade in
Math which is 93.
Here are the steps in finding the t-value or critical value at the t-table:
1. Locate your confidence level (alpha level) at the top row of the t-table found below (this tells you which column you
need).
2. Intersect this column with the row for your df (degrees of freedom). The number you see is the critical value (or the t-
value) for your confidence interval.
Table of T-Values

LESSON 10: DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

A conclusion is an important part of your research study. It wraps up your writing by summarizing the main idea for your
readers. This brings your writing to a smooth close and creates well- written answers to your research questions. You have
to consider the main idea that you want to convey to your readers and have a sense of closure in the study. It usually starts
answering the specific moving to the general inquiry. It must avoid further elaboration which has already been done in the
presentation of the results and discussion, and summary of findings.
In the conclusion part, no new information is expected. Researchers reconsider the research questions and draw answers for
these questions. It is very important that the conclusions are limited within the main objective of the study and research
questions presented at the beginning of the research paper. Hence, conclusions are precise statement that directly answers
the stated research questions.
Furthermore, the purpose of your conclusion is to make the readers understand the impact of your research on them. It is a
synthesis of the key points and not just a summary of the entire research study.

• Guidelines in Writing Your Conclusions

In writing your conclusion, make sure to have a brief introductory statement before itemizing the answers to your research
questions. Remember that your conclusion should address or answer every research inquiry you have in your research study.
Here are some points you have to keep in mind.
1. Avoid merely summarizing. Make inferences from the summary of results.
2. State your conclusion in a clear and simple language. Emphasize the purpose of your study then relate how your findings
differ from other studies.
3. Do not just reiterate the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how
these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
4. Avoid using numerals, figures, or simply repeating the results. The focus of this part of research paper is not presenting
results nor findings. Inferences and implications are emphasized in the conclusions of the study.
5. Indicate opportunities for future research. Highlighting the need for further studies provides the reader with that evidence
that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem.
Please take note that there are different ways of formatting your conclusion. You can have it numbered or in
paragraphs, depending on your institutional format.

• Research Implications
Research Implications are important content of your conclusion. It refers to the logical relations and their result in a given
situation. The conclusions you draw from the findings, how you linked those to a specific theory or practice comprises the
implication of the study.
There are two forms of implications: the practical and theoretical implications.
Practical Implication is also called as convenient implication. It is a realistic explanation of what your research findings
might mean and the fact that would arise if those circumstances were met.
Example: Studying the implications of room-to-room campaign reveals that, it is more effective in increasing awareness of
how to fight COVID-19 than announcing it during the students’ morning assembly.
Theoretical implication is a statement that supports or contradicts a theory, previous study findings, or creates something
entirely new. It also represents the literature in your theoretical section.
Example: Based on Bolman’s Leadership Framework, results indicate that majority of the Student Government officers
significantly possess symbolic leadership. Given that this is their strength, it supports that the results that leadership style is
significantly correlated to two-way communication of the organization. Results also support that avenue for open forum or
discussion were provided.

LESSON 11: FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS

• Research Recommendations
Recommendations can be described as a suggestion regarding the best course of action to take as a result of your summary
of findings and conclusion. The purpose of a recommendation is to provide a useful guide that will not only address certain
problems but result in a successful outcome.
Take note that, no matter how similar the studies are in content and context, their findings may be different because they
will depend heavily on the outcomes and current situations that have occurred during the timeframe of the study. Your
recommendations should point specific actions to be addressed. An excellent advice would direct those affected by the
situation to take concrete action on what needs to be done to solve the issue or to resolve the situation.
Generally, recommendations include how to further improve the pertinent variables or treatment used in the study,
suggestions to concerned individuals or agencies, future researchers who may want to pursue similar studies, and suggests
variables or research methods for future use.
Two Functions of Recommendations
Two major purposes of the research recommendations should be considered to be to craft a good recommendations.
1. Implications of your findings must identify the areas of concern that needs to be addressed.
2. How can future studies address the limitations you encountered in your research?

• Guidelines in Writing Your Recommendations

These are the Guidelines in writing your Recommendations according to Barrot, (2017, p. 214).
1. Write your recommendations based from your conclusions and limitations of your study. Align it to the purpose and
scope of your research.
2. Write a practical and doable recommendations. Be specific.
3. Make it concise and clear.
4. Avoid recommendations that are easy to address.
Please take note that there are different ways of formatting your recommendations. You can have it numbered or in
paragraphs, depending on your institutional format.
Here is an example of how recommendations must relate to the findings and conclusions.