AIM:

TO STUDY ELECTRIC FIELD DUE POINT AND CONTINUOUS

CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

CONTENTS

▪ INTRODUCTION

▪ ELECTRIC CHARGE

▪ CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

▪ CHARGING BY INDUCTION

▪ PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

▪ CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

▪ ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELDLINE

▪ SELECTRIC DIPOLEDIPOLE IN AUNIFORM EXTERNALELECTRIC FIELD

▪ GAUSS LAW

▪ KNOWLEDGE OF PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTRIC FIELD

▪ BIBLIOGRAPHY

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 Introduction to Electric Field

An electric field is a fundamental concept in electromagnetism that describes the

influence exerted by electric charges on one another. It is defined as the region
around a charged particle where a force would be experienced by other charges.
The electric field is a vector quantity, possessing both magnitude and direction.

Definition

The electric field at a point in space is defined as the force experienced per unit
positive charge q placed at that point:

𝐸 = 𝑞𝐹

This means that if a positive test charge is placed in the field, it will experience a
force in the direction of the electric field lines.

Units

The SI unit of the electric field is volts per meter (V/m), which can also be
expressed as newtons per coulomb (N/C).

Electric Field due to Point Charges

For a point charge Q, the electric field E at a distance r from the charge is given by:

𝐹
𝐸=
𝑄

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The electric field created by a point charge Q is given by

𝐹
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑄

Where k is Coulomb's constant, approximately 8.99×109 N 𝑚2 /𝑐 2 . The direction

of the electric field is radially outward from a positive charge and inward toward a
negative charge.

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines visually represent electric fields. They show the direction of the
field and the strength of the field based on their density. Key features of electric
field lines include:

• They originate from positive charges and terminate at negative charges.

• The density of the lines indicates the strength of the field: closer lines mean
a stronger field.
• They never intersect.

Superposition Principle

The net electric field due to multiple charges can be determined using the principle
of superposition. The total electric field at a point is the vector sum of the electric
fields produced by each individual charge.

Applications

Electric fields play a crucial role in various applications, including:

• Capacitors: Store electrical energy through electric fields.

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 • Electric Motors and Generators: Operate based on interactions between
electric fields and magnetic fields.
• Telecommunications: Electric fields facilitate signal transmission in
devices.

Understanding electric fields is essential in physics and engineering, providing

insights into how charged objects interact. They form the basis for many
technologies we rely on today, highlighting their significance in both theoretical
and practical applications.

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1. Electric Charge

• Definition: Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that

determines how it interacts with electromagnetic forces. There are two types
of electric charge: positive (found in protons) and negative (found in
electrons).
• Units: The standard unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). One coulomb
is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through a conductor carrying
one ampere of current in one second.
• Types of Charge:
o Positive Charge: Carried by protons, which are found in the nucleus
of atoms
o Negative Charge: Carried by electrons, which orbit the nucleus.
• Conservation of Charge: The principle of charge conservation states that
the total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant over time.
Charge can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transferred from
one object to another.
• Example: When materials such as rubber and glass are rubbed together,
electrons are transferred from one material to the other, resulting in one
material becoming positively charged and the other negatively charged. This
is a demonstration of charge transfer.

2. Conductors and Insulators

• Conductors:

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 o Definition: Conductors are materials that allow electric charges to
flow freely due to the presence of free electrons.
o Examples: Metals such as copper, silver, and aluminum are excellent
conductors. They are commonly used in electrical wiring and
components.
o Properties: High density of free electrons; low resistivity. Conductors
exhibit high thermal conductivity and are typically malleable and
ductile.
• Insulators:
o Definition: Insulators are materials that do not allow electric charges
to flow freely due to the absence of free electrons.
o Examples: Rubber, glass, wood, and plastic are common insulators.
These materials are often used to coat or protect conductive wires and
components.
o Properties: High resistivity; poor thermal conductivity. Insulators are
typically brittle and not malleable.

3. Charging by Induction

• Definition: Charging by induction is a method of transferring electric charge

without direct contact between objects.
• Process:
1. Approaching Charge: Bring a charged object (e.g., negatively
charged rod) near a neutral conductor. The presence of the charged
object causes electrons in the conductor to move (repulsion or
attraction).
2. Grounding: Connect the conductor to the ground (earth). This allows
excess electrons to escape into the ground if the charged object is
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 negatively charged or allows electrons to enter if the object is
positively charged.
3. Removal of Charge: After grounding, remove the charged object.
The conductor remains with a net charge (positive if electrons left,
negative if electrons entered).
• Example: When a negatively charged rod is brought close to a neutral metal
sphere, electrons in the sphere are repelled. If the sphere is grounded while
the rod is nearby, electrons will leave the sphere. Once the rod is removed,
the sphere is left with a positive charge.

4. Properties of Electric Charge

• Additive: Electric charge is additive. If two charges are present, the total
charge is the algebraic sum of individual charges. For example, if 𝑞1 =+3C
and 𝑞2 =−2 C then the total charge 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =𝑞1 +𝑞2 =+1 CQ.
• Quantization: Charge is quantized, meaning it exists in discrete amounts.
The smallest unit of charge is the charge of an electron (approximately
1.6×10 −19 C. Charges can only be integer multiples of this elementary
charge.
• Coulomb’s Law: Describes the electrostatic force between two point
|𝑞1 𝑞2 |
charges: F=k 𝑟2

o F: Magnitude of the force between the charges.

o K : Coulomb's constant (8.99×109 N 𝑚2 /𝑐 2 ).
o 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 : Magnitudes of the charges.
o r: Distance between the centers of the two charges.

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 • Interactions: Like charges repel each other, while opposite charges attract.
This fundamental interaction explains the behavior of charged particles and
is critical in understanding atomic and molecular structures.

5. Charge Distribution

• Uniform Charge Distribution: Charge is evenly spread over a surface or

throughout a volume. For instance, a charged thin spherical shell can be
modeled with a uniform surface charge density 𝜎 = 𝑄 𝐴 , where A is the
surface area.
• Non-uniform Charge Distribution: Charge density varies across an object.
For example, a charged rod may have higher charge density at its ends
compared to its center. This affects the resultant electric field and potential
around the object.
• Electric Field Influence: The distribution of charge directly influences the
electric field it creates. For a uniformly charged sphere, the electric field
outside behaves as if all charge were concentrated at its center, while for a
non-uniform distribution, the field can be complex and varies with distance.
• Mathematical Representation of Charge Density:
o Linear Charge Density: 𝜆 = 𝑄𝐿(charge per unit length).
o Surface Charge Density: 𝜎 = 𝑄𝐴 (charge per unit area).
o Volume Charge Density: 𝜌 = 𝑄𝑉(charge per unit volume).

6. Electric Field and Electric Field Lines

• Electric Field (E): A vector field that surrounds a charged object,

representing the force exerted per unit charge. The formula is given by:
|𝑞|
E=k 𝑟 2

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 o E: Electric field strength (N/C).
o k: Coulomb's constant (8.99×109 N 𝑚2 /𝑐 2 ).
o q: Charge creating the field.
o r: Distance from the charge.
• Field Lines: Visual representations of the electric field. The direction of
field lines indicates the direction of the force on a positive test charge.
o Characteristics:
▪ Lines originate from positive charges and terminate on negative
charges.
▪ The density of lines indicates the strength of the electric field;
closer lines indicate a stronger field.
• Examples: Diagrams can illustrate the field lines for:
o A single point charge (radiating outward for positive, inward for
negative).
o A dipole, where the lines show the field configuration between
positive and negative charges.
o Multiple charges, demonstrating superposition of fields.

7. Electric Dipole in a Uniform External Electric Field

• Definition: An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges

(+q and −q) separated by a distance d. The dipole moment p is defined as:

p=𝑞 ⋅ 𝑑

• Behavior in an Electric Field:

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 o Torque: When placed in an external electric field EEE, a dipole
experiences a torque given by: 𝜏 = 𝑃 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) where θ is the angle
between the dipole moment and the electric field direction.
o Potential Energy: The potential energy U of the dipole in the electric
field is given by: 𝑈 = − 𝑝⃗ ⋅ 𝐸 = −𝑝⃗ 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) . This indicates that
the dipole tends to align with the electric field to minimize potential
energy.
• Applications: Electric dipoles are important in various fields, such as:
o Molecular Chemistry: Understanding molecular shapes and
polarities.
o Biological Systems: In biomolecules like proteins and nucleic acids,
where dipole interactions are crucial for function.
o Electronics: Dipole antennas and their role in radio wave
transmission.

8. Gauss's Law

• Statement: Gauss's Law relates the electric flux through a closed surface to
the charge enclosed within that surface:

ɸ𝐸 =𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 /𝜖0 =∮ E ⋅ dA

o ɸ𝐸 : Electric flux through a closed surface.

o 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 : Total charge enclosed within the surface.
o 𝜖0 : Permittivity of free space (8.85×10−12 𝑐 2 /N 𝑚2 ).
• Derivation: Gauss's Law can be derived from Coulomb's Law for
symmetrical charge distributions. It highlights how the shape and size of the
surface do not affect the total electric flux, only the enclosed charge does.

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 • Applications:
o Spherical Symmetry: For a uniformly charged sphere, the electric
field outside behaves as if all charge were concentrated at the center:
|𝑄|
E=k 𝑟 2 where Q is the total charge and r is the distance from the

center.
o Cylindrical Symmetry: For an infinite line charge, Gauss's Law can
be applied to derive the electric field at distance r: E=λ2πϵ0r is the
linear charge density.
• Examples: Calculate the electric field of:
o A charged conducting sphere (inside and outside).
o A uniformly charged infinite plane sheet, where the electric field is
constant and does not depend on distance from the sheet.

KNOWLEDGE OF PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTRIC FIELD

1. Coulomb's Law Experiment

• Objective: To determine the relationship between electric force and the

distance between charges.
• Method: Charles Augustin de Coulomb conducted experiments using a
torsion balance. He measured the force between charged objects at various
distances.
• Findings: Coulomb discovered that the force between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. This is summarized in
|𝑞1 𝑞2 |
Coulomb's Law: F= k 𝑟2

2. Electric Field Mapping with Test Charges

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 • Objective: To visualize electric fields around charged objects.
• Method: A small test charge (positive) is placed at various points around a
charged object, and the force experienced by the test charge is measured. By
plotting the force direction and magnitude, electric field lines can be
mapped.
• Findings: This method demonstrates that electric field lines radiate from
positive charges and terminate on negative charges. The density of lines
indicates the strength of the electric field.

3. Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment

• Objective: To measure the charge of an electron and understand electric

fields' effects on charged particles.
• Method: Robert Millikan suspended tiny oil droplets in an electric field and
balanced the gravitational force with the electric force acting on the droplets.
• Findings: By adjusting the electric field and observing the droplet’s motion,
Millikan determined the charge of the electron to be approximately
1.6×10 −19 coulombs. This experiment demonstrated the quantization of
charge.

4. Gauss’s Law Experiment

• Objective: To validate Gauss’s Law experimentally.

• Method: By using a spherical conductor charged uniformly and measuring
the electric field at various distances from the center of the sphere, the
relationship between the electric field and the enclosed charge was observed.

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 Findings: The experimental results confirmed that the electric field outside
the charged conductor behaves as if all charge were concentrated at the
center, consistent with Gauss’s Law:

ɸ𝐸 =𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 /𝜖0 =∮ E ⋅ dA

5. Foucault's Experiment

• Objective: To measure the speed of light and its relation to electric and
magnetic fields.
• Method: While primarily focused on light, Léon Foucault’s experiment
involved rotating mirrors and electric fields to demonstrate the effect of
moving charges on light propagation.
• Findings: His work contributed to understanding how electric fields and
moving charges affect electromagnetic waves, leading to the development of
electromagnetism as a unified theory.

6. Faraday's Ice Pail Experiment

• Objective: To investigate electrostatic induction and the behavior of electric

fields.
• Method: Michael Faraday placed a charged object inside a metal container
(the ice pail) and measured the charge induced on the container’s inner and
outer surfaces.
• Findings: The experiment demonstrated that the electric field inside a
conductor is zero when in electrostatic equilibrium. The induced charge on
the outside was proportional to the charge inside the pail, confirming the
principles of induction and electric field behavior.

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7. Deflection of Charged Particles in Electric Fields

• Objective: To study how charged particles behave in electric fields.

• Method: Charged particles (like electrons) are passed through a uniform
electric field created between two parallel plates. The trajectory of the
particles is observed and measured.
• Findings: The experiment shows that charged particles experience a force
proportional to the electric field strength, causing them to accelerate and
change direction, leading to parabolic trajectories.

8. Electric Field Strength Measurement with a Voltmeter

• Objective: To measure the electric field strength in a region.

• Method: A voltmeter can be used to measure the potential difference
(voltage) between two points in an electric field. By knowing the distance
between these points, the electric field can be calculated using: E=𝑉. 𝑑
where E is the electric field strength, V is the potential difference, and d is
the distance between the points.
• Findings: This method allows for practical measurements of electric field
strength in various configurations, such as parallel plates or near charged
spheres.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

• Books:
o "Fundamentals of Physics" by David Halliday ,Walker and Resnick
o "Introduction to Electrodynamics" by David J. Griffiths.

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• Online Resources:
o Hyper Physics: Comprehensive explanations of physics concepts
(hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu).
o Khan Academy: Free educational content on physics topics
(khanacademy.org).

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