CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that “ZEHRA BENAZIR” Student of class 12th PCB

has successfully completed her physic project on the “Electric
charges and field” under the guidance of her teacher………………

Internal examiner. External examiner.

Principal’s signature
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my Physics

teacher “….……………..” for his able guidance and support in
completing my Project.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Principal Mam

“…………….” For providing me with all the facility that was required.
 INDEX

• INTRODUCTION
• ELECTRIC CHARGE
• COULOMB’S LAW
• ELECTRIC FIELD
• ELECTRIC DIPOLE
• GAUSS’S LAW
• POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN ELECTRIC
FIELD
• EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
• APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC CHARGES
AND FIELDS
• LIMITATIONS OF CLASSICAL APPROACH
• CONCLUSION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Introduction
Electric charges and fields form the foundation of electromagnetism, one
of the most significant branches of classical physics. Electric charge is a
fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electric field. Discovered as early as the 18th century, the
concept of charge was studied extensively by pioneers like Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb, who formulated Coulomb’s law, and Michael
Faraday, who introduced the idea of electric fields.

Electric fields describe the influence a charge exerts on its surroundings,

allowing forces to act over a distance. This concept helps us understand
interactions between charges, the behavior of charged particles in fields,
and phenomena such as lightning, charging by friction, and electrostatic
shielding.

The study of electric charges and fields is essential for understanding

modern technologies like capacitors, electric circuits, and even the
principles behind electronic devices. From classical physics to modern
electromagnetism, the study of these phenomena has enabled
advancements in communication, computing, and energy storage,
shaping the technological landscape of the world.
2. Electric Charge
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes particles
to experience a force in the presence of other charges or an electric field.
It exists in two types: positive and negative, where like charges repel
and unlike charges attract. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C), and
the smallest unit of charge is the charge of an electron, e=1.6×10−19 Ce
= 1.6 \times 10^{-19} \, C.

Properties of Electric Charge:

1. Additivity: Charges are scalar quantities and can be

algebraically added. For example, the total charge of a system
is the sum of all individual charges.
2. Conservation: Charge is neither created nor destroyed; it is
always conserved. In an isolated system, the total charge
remains constant.
3. Quantization: Charge exists in discrete packets and is an
integral multiple of e, i.e., q=n×e, where n is an integer.

Types of Materials:

• Conductors: Allow free movement of charges (e.g., metals like

copper and aluminum).
• Insulators: Restrict the flow of charges (e.g., rubber, glass).
• Semiconductors: Have properties between conductors and
insulators.

Methods of Charging:

1. By Friction: Rubbing two objects transfers electrons, leaving

one positively charged and the other negatively charged.
2. By Conduction: A charged body transfers charge to another by
direct contact.
 3. By Induction: A nearby charged object induces a charge on a
neutral body without direct contact.

Electric charge governs all electrostatic phenomena, from small-scale

atomic interactions to large-scale applications like power grids and
electronics.
3. Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law describes the force of interaction between two
stationary point charges. It states that the magnitude of the electrostatic
force (F) between two charges is directly proportional to the product of
their magnitudes (q1 and q2) and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance (r) between them.

Mathematically,

where k=1/4πϵ0 is the electrostatic constant (8.99×10⁹ N m²/C)

Key Points:

• The force acts along the line joining the charges.

• Like charges repel, while unlike charges attract.
• The principle of superposition allows the net force on a charge
to be calculated by summing up the vector forces due to all
other charges.

Coulomb’s Law is fundamental in understanding electrostatic

interactions and is used to calculate forces in atomic and molecular
systems, as well as large-scale charge distributions.
4. Electric Field
The electric field is a region around a charged particle where other
charges experience a force. It is a vector quantity defined as the force
(F⃗) experienced by a test charge (q) per unit charge:

E⃗=F⃗q

The SI unit of the electric field is newton per coulomb (N/C). The
direction of the electric field is the same as the force on a positive test
charge and opposite for a negative charge.

Electric Field Due to a Point Charge:

The electric field at a distance r from a charge q is:

Properties of Electric Field Lines:

1. Field lines originate from positive charges and terminate at

negative charges.
2. They never intersect.
3. The density of lines indicates the strength of the field.
4. Field lines are perpendicular to the surface of conductors.

The concept of the electric field simplifies the understanding of force

interactions, especially for complex systems with multiple charges. It
plays a crucial role in modern technologies like capacitors and electric
circuits.
5. Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges (+q and
−q) separated by a fixed distance 2a. The dipole is characterized by its
electric dipole moment (p⃗), a vector quantity defined as:

p⃗=q⋅d⃗

where d⃗ is the vector pointing from the negative to the positive charge.
The SI unit of dipole moment is C·m.

Electric Field of a Dipole:

• Axial Line:

• Equatorial Line:

A dipole experiences torque (τ=p⃗×E⃗) in a uniform electric field,

aligning it along the field direction. Dipoles are crucial in
understanding molecular behavior, polarization, and fields in non-
uniform media.
6. Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism that relates
the electric flux through a closed surface to the charge enclosed by that
surface. It states:

Φ=∮E⃗⋅dA⃗

Here, Φ is the electric flux, E⃗ is the electric field, dA⃗ is an

infinitesimal area vector, and ϵ is the permittivity of free space.

Applications of Gauss’s Law:

1. Uniformly Charged Sphere: The electric field outside a sphere

behaves as if all the charge were concentrated at its center.
2. Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge: The electric field is uniform
and perpendicular to the sheet.
3. Cylindrical Symmetry: For an infinitely long charged cylinder,
the field depends on the radial distance.

Gauss’s Law simplifies calculations for symmetrical charge distributions

and helps analyze electric fields in various configurations efficiently.
7. Potential Energy in an Electric Field
The potential energy of a charge in an electric field is the work done in
bringing the charge from a reference point (typically infinity) to its
position in the field without acceleration. For a point charge q in the
field of another charge Q, the potential energy is:

Here, r is the distance between the charges, and k is Coulomb’s

constant.
Work Done by Electric Field:

The work done in moving a charge q through a potential difference V is:

For a Dipole:

The potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field is:

U=−p⃗⋅E⃗

This energy depends on the orientation of the dipole relative to the field.
Potential energy plays a vital role in understanding charge interactions
and energy storage in capacitors.
8. Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface on which the electric potential is
constant at every point. No work is required to move a charge along an
equipotential surface because the electric potential difference is zero.

Properties:

1. Perpendicular to Electric Field Lines: Equipotential surfaces

are always perpendicular to the electric field lines at every
point.
2. Closer Spacing Indicates Stronger Field: The closer the
equipotential surfaces, the stronger the electric field in that
region.
3. Spherical Equipotentials: For a point charge, the
equipotential surfaces are concentric spheres centered on the
charge.
4. For a Uniform Electric Field: The equipotential surfaces are
parallel planes, and the potential decreases uniformly with
distance.

Equipotential surfaces are useful in visualizing electric fields and

understanding the behavior of charges in electric fields. They also
provide insights into the design of devices like capacitors and the nature
of electrostatic potential.
9. Applications of Electric Charges and Fields
Electric charges and fields have numerous practical applications in both
everyday life and advanced technology. Some significant applications
include:

1. Capacitors: Devices that store electrical energy in the form of an

electric field between two conductive plates, essential for energy
storage, filtering in circuits, and in power systems.
2. Electrostatic Precipitators: Used in industries to remove particles
from exhaust gases by using electric fields to charge the particles,
which are then collected on oppositely charged plates.
3. Van de Graaff Generator: A device that generates high voltages
using electrostatic principles, commonly used in particle
accelerators and educational demonstrations.
4. Lightning: A natural example of electrostatic discharge where
large charges accumulated in clouds are released through a
lightning strike, demonstrating the power of electric fields in
nature.
5. Photocopiers: Work on the principle of electrostatic charges to
transfer ink to paper, using electric fields to attract toner particles
to charged areas.

These applications highlight the critical role that electric charges and
fields play in various technological advancements, from energy storage
to industrial processes and scientific research.
10. Limitations of Classical Approach
While classical electromagnetism, particularly the study of electric
charges and fields, provides essential insights into many phenomena, it
has several limitations. These arise primarily when considering
microscopic scales or high-velocity systems.

1. Point Charges and Singularities: Classical models often treat

charges as point particles with no size, which can lead to
mathematical singularities (infinite fields) in some situations,
especially at very small distances between charges.
2. Inability to Explain Quantum Effects: Classical physics does not
account for quantum mechanical effects, which are essential at
atomic and subatomic scales. For example, the behavior of
electrons in atoms cannot be fully explained by classical
electrostatics but requires quantum theory.
3. Relativity and High Velocities: The classical description of
electric and magnetic fields does not take into account the
relativistic effects at speeds close to the speed of light. In these
situations, the theory of special relativity must be considered,
leading to the more complete framework of electromagnetism
described by Maxwell’s equations.
4. Charge Distribution and Non-Uniform Fields: Classical
approaches like Coulomb’s Law are limited in their ability to
describe the behavior of charges in complex or dynamic systems
(e.g., charge density variations or rapidly changing fields).

These limitations were addressed with the development of quantum

electrodynamics (QED) and the theory of relativity, which offer a more
accurate and comprehensive understanding of electromagnetic
phenomena.
11. Conclusion
The study of electric charges and fields is fundamental to understanding
a wide range of physical phenomena, from the smallest interactions
between particles to the large-scale behavior of charged systems in
nature and technology. Concepts such as Coulomb's law, electric fields,
and Gauss’s law have provided essential tools for analyzing and solving
problems in electrostatics.

Electric fields and potentials form the basis for technologies like
capacitors, electrostatic precipitators, and even lightning, highlighting
their importance in both practical applications and theoretical physics.
However, classical electromagnetism has limitations, particularly when
it comes to microscopic scales and relativistic speeds, which are
addressed by modern theories such as quantum electrodynamics and
relativity.

By understanding the principles of electric charges and fields, we gain

insight into the underlying structure of the universe and develop
technologies that shape our daily lives. Continued advancements in
electromagnetism, powered by new theories and research, will likely
lead to even more revolutionary applications in the future.
Bibliography

Books used – NCERT Class 12

Websites used-

www.wikipedia.com

www.vedantu.com

www.unacademy.com