Occup. Med. Vol. 46, No. 2, pp.

114-124, 1996
Copyright © 1996 Rapid Science Publishers for SOM
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0962-7480/96

Colour vision requirements of

firefighters
T. H. Margrain, J. Birch and C. G. Owen
Fireground Vision Research Unit, Department of Optometry and Visual
Science, City University, 311-321 Goswell Road, London ECIV 7DD

To perform their job safely firefighters must be able to identify colours on industrial

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gas cylinders, portable fire extinguishers, road traffic signals and several pieces of
firefighting equipment. Although good colour vision is necessary we believe that the
existing colour vision standard, which bars entry to the fire service to applicants who
fail more than two plates of the Ishihara test, is unnecessarily stringent. We have
identified and quantified the colour coded information encountered by firefighters.
Colours were plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram (1931) and isochromatic zones,
which document the colour confusions of colour deficient observers, superimposed.
This novel technique established possible colour confusions in different types of
colour deficiency. Analysis of the results showed that red/green dichromats
(protanopes and deuteranopes), severe deuteranomalous trichromats who fail the
Farnsworth D15 test, and protanomalous trichromats are unsuitable for firefighting
work. However, people with slight deuteranomalous trichromatism who pass the D15
test, are not disadvantaged and can be employed safely as firefighters. A new colour
vision standard and a new testing procedure is recommended.

Occup. Med. Vol. 46,114-124, 1996

Received 1995; accepted in final form 1996.

INTRODUCTION fireground were tabulated and numerical colour speci-

fications obtained. These were then compared with the
Currently, only individual's with perfect colour vision known colour confusions of people with different types
are recruited to the fire service. The present standard1 of colour deficiency in order to determine whether
specifies that colour vision be tested with the Ishihara mistakes, which might compromise safety, are likely
plates and that people who make more than two iden- to occur.
tification errors are barred entry to the fire service.
This standard replaced an earlier one that allowed
individuals to enter the fire service who had failed the
Ishihara test but were able to pass a vocational wool COLOUR VISION
test.2 Although firefighters must discriminate colours
because their work involves the recognition of various Normal colour vision is mediated by long-wavelength
colour codes, it does not necessarily follow that (red), medium-wavelength (green) and short wave-
'perfect' colour vision is needed. The present standard length (blue) sensitive cone photoreceptors. The
excludes all colour deficient applicants although different responses of the three types of cone to light
previous studies suggest that people with slight colour of a particular wavelength are processed in the visual
deficiency may be employed safely.3"5 The maxim of pathway and this subsequently gives rise to the
Equal Opportunities For All dictates that all vision perception of colour. People who have normal trichro-
standards must be appropriate and defensible. It is not matic colour vision can discriminate an estimated 3
apparent that the present colour vision standard meets million separate colours if all variables of luminance, hue
these criteria. and saturation are allowed.6 Normal hue discrimination
This investigation uses a novel three stage analysis ability can be represented by a series of discrimination
to determine suitable colour vision standards for fire- ellipses in the chromaticity diagram established by the
fighters. All the colour codes currently in use on the Committee Internationale d'Eclairage (CIE) in 1931.
The CIE colour measurement system is universally
accepted as a means of specifying colours used in
Correspondence and reprint requests to: MrT. H. Margrain, Fireground science and industry. Individual colours are specified
Vision Research Unit, Department of Optometry and Visual Science,
Dame Alice Owen Building, 311-321 Goswell Road, London EC1V
numerically in terms of x, y chromaticity co-ordinates
7DD. together with a luminance or reflection factor. White
 T. H. Margrain er a/.: Colour vision requirements of firefighters 115

Figure 1. The CIE chromacity diagram and a sample of Figure 2. Isochromatic lines of dichromats. Each line represents
discrimination ellipses. Any colour may be specified by referencing the longer axis of the dichromats discrimination ellipse. Colours
its x, y co-ordinates. Colours that fall within an ellipse (shown represented by points along each line cannot be distinguished
enlarged approximately 10 times) appear to be the same to by dichromats, providing the luminance of each colour is the
people with normal colour vision same, (a) Isochromatic lines of protanopes; (b) Isochromatic
lines of deuteranopes.

0.9 -
520 nm

600 nm

<u

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<u
I
o
O

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Co-efficient of x a

is located at the centre of the chromaticity diagram.

Spectral hues are located along the curved boundary
and desaturated colours are located at intermediate
positions between white and the spectral locus. People
with normal trichromatic colour vision cannot distin-
guish between colours with x, y co-ordinates inside an
individual ellipse (see Figure 1).
c
Abnormal colour vision is caused by a variety of .2
o
inherited cone photopigment anomalies. Monochro- C
mats have either no functioning cone photoreceptors o
or a single cone type. Visual acuity is significantly o
reduced. Monochromats are truly 'colour blind' and
cannot discriminate wavelength differences in the
environment.
Approximately 8% of men and 0.4% of women have
some form of congenital colour deficiency. Defects 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
differ in type and in severity but the number of separate
Co-efficient of x
hues that can be distinguished is always greatly reduced
in comparison to the norm.
Dichromats have only two cone photopigments. There
are three types of dichromat depending on which of Protan and deutan defects are known collectively as
the three normal photopigments is non-functioning. red/green colour deficiency. The different types of
Protanopes lack the red sensitive photopigment, deficiency do not occur with the same frequency.
deuteranopes lack the green sensitive photopigment Protanopia, deuteranopia and protanomalous trichro-
and tritanopes lack the blue. Anomalous trichromats matism are each found in approximately 1% of men
have three types of cone but the spectral sensitivity of whereas deuteranomalous trichromatism occurs in
one cone photopigment is abnormal. The terms about 5%. (see Table 1). A range of abnormal
protanomalous, deuteranomalous and tritanomalous photopigments can occur and there are marked dif-
trichromatism are used to denote abnormalities of the ferences in the severity of colour deficiency within
red, green and blue sensitive photopigments respec- each classification of anomalous trichromatism. The
tively. Abnormalities of the blue photopigment are rare hue discrimination ability of some anomalous trichro-
and this type of colour deficiency will not be consid- mats is only slightly reduced whereas others have poor
ered further. hue discrimination similar to that of the corresponding
116 Occup. Med. Vol. 46, 1996

Table 1. Prevalence of inherited colour deficiency in men and in the paint, textile, food and printing industries.
women Mistakes made in the correct identification of precious
Type of deficiency % of men % of women stones, ripe fruit, the ink used in printing or in electrical
components may be costly. In other occupations the
Protanopia 1% 0.01%
Protanomalous trichromatism 0.03%
incorrect identification of colour may have human as
1%
Deuteranopia 1% 0.01%
well as financial consequences. This is particularly so
Deuteranomalous trichromatism 5% 0.35%
in transport industries. A more extensive list of
Total 8% 0.40% occupations that require good colour vision is provided
byVolk."
Obviously, it is important to exclude colour deficient
people from some occupations. However, individuals
dichromat. Dichromats confuse a wide range of colours
with defective colour vision are not a homogenous
including spectral hues; reds are confused with greens
group, whereas some colour deficient people have a
and purples are confused with blue-greens. Anomalous
very limited ability to distinguish colours others are
trichromats may only confuse desaturated, pale or dark
only slightly handicapped. There is a strong case that,
colours. People with red/green colour deficiency always

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have difficulty distinguishing between reds, oranges, wherever possible, colour vision standards should be
yellows, browns and greens. Protans have poor sensi- set to the level of colour perception required in the
tivity at the long wave-length limit of the visible particular occupation rather than exceed that dictated
spectrum; red appears dark, and may be confused with by the demands of the job.
black.
The colour confusions of protanopes and deuteranopes Colour discrimination on the fireground
can each be represented by a series of isochromatic
zones on the CIE chromaticity diagram (see Figures Firefighting is a varied, demanding and unpredictable
2a and 2b). There are approximately 17 zones for occupation where the cost of non performance is high.
protanopes and 27 for deuteranopes.7 Colours specified In many situations, where firefighters need to
by x, y co-ordinates within isochromatic zones cannot discriminate between colours, not only are errors in
be discriminated and will be confused by an observer identification unacceptable but the time allowed for
of that particular type as long as no luminance contrast identification is restricted. Viewing conditions are often
exists between the colours. The isochromatic zones of far from ideal; smoke and semi-darkness make the task
anomalous trichromats are similar to that of the of colour identification particularly difficult. In addi-
corresponding dichromat but do not include the full tion, colours on the fireground are often muted because
range of chromaticities. Discrimination ellipses of of soiling caused by soot, dust and ash. Firefighters
differing size occur within isochromatic zones. may have to interpret a number of formalized colour
Congenital colour deficiency does not change with codes such as those used to identify industrial gas
age. However, although colour deficiency is usually cylinders, portable fire extinguishers, traffic signal
inherited it can also be acquired as a result of some lights and pipelines. Colour is also used as a means
diseases or as a side effect of some types of prolonged of identification on a variety of firefighting equipment,
medication. Acquired defects usually affect the blue e.g. colour coding of high and low pressure air lines
mechanism and the severity of the deficiency changes used with cutting, spreading and lifting equipment. In
with time. Acquired red/green colour deficiency can addition, firefighters may gain useful information
occur in optic nerve pathology but is always accom- about the origins of a fire by the colour of smoke or
panied by symptoms which include loss of visual acuity. flames.
Firefighters are less likely to present with acquired
colour deficiency than a person in the general popu-
lation because they are relatively young (the average Colour vision tests and visual standards
age is 36 years) and they must have good general A number of colour vision tests have been developed
health.7'8 that may be used to select personnel. Tests can be
classified as being either clinical or vocational.
Vocational or trade tests, as they are sometimes
Occupational colour vision requirements known, can be used to select personnel when the colour
Colour is very much part of our everyday lives, it is vision task required by a job is readily identifiable and
used extensively both at home and in the work place. when it is conducted under repeatable lighting condi-
It may be used decoratively, as an aid to identification tions. Generally these tests try to recreate the tasks
or as a means of coding information.9 Colour coding and conditions of the work place. For example, a
has been shown to reduce visual search times,10 but suitable colour vision test for a job that involves iden-
complex codes are frequently used with little consid- tifying electrical resistors might be to determine if a
eration given to the problems it is likely to cause colour potential employee can correctly identify the coloured
deficient people. bars on a series of resistors. Although this trade test is
In many industries the correct identification of subtle simple and apparently fair it highlights some of the
colour differences is of great importance, for example, possible sources of error that affect vocational colour vision
 T. H. Margrain ef a/.: Colour vision requirements of firefighters 117

tests, i.e. examiner variability, lack of standardization diagram. Failure of the test occurs when colours from
and the use of colour naming. As we shall show, fire- opposite sides of the hue circle are placed together in
fighters must be able to distinguish between a plethora the arrangement. These errors represent isochromatic
of different colours in a number of different conditions. colour confusions equal to the separation of the colours
It is not possible to recreate the conditions encountered across the hue circle
on the fireground and therefore a trade test would be We concur with the views of others11'13 that clinical
an inappropriate and unjustifiable means of selecting tests alone provide a suitable means of selecting personnel.
firefighter recruits.12
Clinical tests have been designed to perform a variety
of tasks. These include: identifying people with defec- METHODS
tive colour vision, grading the severity of the defect
and/or classifying the defect as protan, deutan, or tritan. To determine suitable colour vision standards for the
Clinical tests that use surface colours are unable to fire service we used a novel objective technique. Briefly,
differentiate between people who are dichromatic and this involved the identification of all colour coded
those who have severe anomalous trichromatism. Al- information that a firefighter may reasonably expect

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though some clinical tests are better than others at to encounter at work. The colours were quantified by
particular tasks, their great advantage over trade tests determining their CIE co-ordinates; this information
is that their sensitivity and specificity have been estab- was used to plot the colours on the CIE chromacity
lished in clinical trials, they avoid the use of colour diagram. By superimposing the isochromatic zones of
naming and minimize the effect of examiner variability the different categories of colour deficiency it was
by adopting a standardized test routine. possible to determine which type of colour deficient
Most clinical tests require the person being examined observer would have difficulty with which colours or
to identify a figure, match colours or to arrange colours objects.
in a sequence. The 'confusion' colours used in clinical Firefighting tasks that involve the use of colour were
tests are carefully chosen so that they fall within the identified by: referring to the literature,3"5 talking to
isochromatic zones for colour deficient observers but firefighters from different brigades about their jobs,
are not encompassed within a single discrimination and discussing the importance of tasks involving colour
ellipse of the normal observer. By ensuring that the coded information with firefighter instructors based
confusion colours used in the test fall within the at the Fire Service College at Morton-in-Marsh.
isochromatic zones of a particular class of colour Additional information about colour coded objects used
deficiency it is possible to classify the defect into either by the fire service was supplied by the Home Office
protan, deutan or tritan. Quantification of the defect Fire Research and Development Group and the Fire
may be achieved by tests which use colours that have Experimental Unit also based at Morton-in-Marsh.
different colour difference steps within zones. Colours were quantified by having their CIE co-
The Ishihara pseudoisochromatic test, currently used ordinates determined. This was achieved in one of two
by the fire service, is a particularly efficient screening ways either by a colour matching technique or by
test for red-green colour deficiency.6 Although protans referring to the colour agreed by the British Standard
and deutans are identified, the test is neither designed Institute (BSI):
to screen for tritan defects nor is it able to grade the
severity of red-green colour deficiency. If standards 1. The colour of firefighting equipment was quantified
are to be appropriate, tests must be able to identify by matching each colour with known Munsell reference
colour deficient people as well as to classify and grade colours. One of the authors (CGO), who has normal
the defect. Several clinical tests have been designed to colour perception (determined by a battery of clinical
do this. These include the Farnsworth D15 test, the tests), made the colour match. Colours were matched
City University Test, the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue in situ, i.e. no attempt was made to clean the equipment
test, the Nagel anomaloscope and the American or to alter the prevailing lighting conditions. Although
Optical Hardy, Rand and Rittler (HRR) plates. this is advantageous in as much that it reflects 'real
The D15 test was developed by Farnsworth in 1943 world' conditions it does not take into account the fact
to distinguish between 'safe' and 'unsafe' colour deficient that colour appearance changes in different lighting
applicants to the electronics industry. The test is well conditions. All measurements were conducted at the
suited to occupational colour vision assessment. The Fire Service College, Morton-in-Marsh.
test, contained in a single box, is comprised of 15
movable, standardized Munsell colour samples and a 2. Firefighters may encounter a variety of objects that
fixed reference sample. The person being tested is employ colour coding as a means of coding informa-
simply required to arrange the colours in sequence. tion. The colours used in these formalized colour codes
Approximately 5% of men fail the Farnsworth D15. are specified in a number of BSI standards. Colours
The test is quick, easy to use, inexpensive and the used by these codes are specified in terms of Munsell
results are readily interpreted by relatively inexperi- reference colours or reference colours described by
enced examiners. The x,y co-ordinates of each of the BS 5252. We assumed that the actual colour of these
Munsell samples can be located on the CIE chromacity codes/objects was that specified by the appropriate
118 Occup. Med. Vol. 46. 1996

BSI standard. is to be used for firefighting.

CIE chromacity co-ordinates were determined from Correct and rapid identification of gas cylinders
Munsell references using published data.15 present at the scene of a fire is of obvious importance.
The first stage of the analysis was to determine which The contents of medical and industrial gas cylinders
colours are likely to be confused by dichromats. This are primarily identified by the use of colour coding
was achieved by plotting the colours of objects that on the cylinder body. A written description of cylinders
may be confused, for example gas cylinders, on a single contents is provided at the top of each cylinder.
CIE chromacity diagram and superimposing the However, it may not always be possible to read this
isochromatic lines for dichromats. Colours that may in a firefighting situation where rapid identification is
appear the same to protanopes and deuteranopes— important. BS349 and BSI319 describe the code used
those that fall within a single isochromatic zone—were on industrial and medical gas cylinders respectively;
identified visually from the diagram. specification of the colours is provided by BS318 and
The second stage of the analysis was to determine BS5252.
if these colour coded objects could be correctly iden-
tified by non-colour clues such as shape, reflectance,

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text or symbols.
Having established which colour coded objects Figure 3. Dichromatic isochromatic lines and the colours of
portable fire extinguishers. Colours that fall along a single line
appear the same to dichromats, the final stage of the appear the same to dichromats. (a) Colours described as
analysis was to determine if the superior colour cream and red fall on a single line therefore, they have the
discrimination of anomalous trichromats might be same colour appearance to protanopes. It can be seen (b)
that deuteranopes will not make the same confusion.
sufficient to produce correct identification. This was
achieved by comparing the separation of the confusion
colours (within the appropriate isochromatic zone)
with the separation of the colours used in a clinical
test designed to grade anomalous trichromatism. If the
separation of the confusion colours is greater than the
separation of the colours used in the clinical test, then
that test will be able to distinguish between anomalous
trichromats who would see a colour difference and
those who might not.

RESULTS

Identification of colour codes used in firefighting

Colour coded objects that firefighters must identify
are described below. All colours used in these codes
are specified numerically in terms of their CIE 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
chromacity co-ordinates in Appendix I.
Safety signs are identified by their shape, colour and a
a symbol or text. The colour assigns a specific health
or safety meaning, i.e. red signs are prohibitory, yellow
ones indicate warning, blue ones give mandatory
instructions and green signs indicate a safe condition.
The colours used on safety signs must be those
described BS 5378:1980.
Many firefighters drive fire appliances in emergency
situations and must therefore be able to interpret road
traffic signal lights. At night, signal lights must also
be differentiated from other street lighting. The colour
of road traffic signal lights and several common types 0)
of street lighting is described by BS 505:1971 (amended oI
1990) and BS 1367:1974 (amended 1982). o
Firefighters must also be able to recognize colour
coding used on industrial pipelines. The colour code,
described by BS1710, uses colour to denote both pipe-
line contents and to indicate the hazard its contents
represent. In particular, firefighters must be able to 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
recognize the red band that indicates that the pipeline Co-efficient of x
 T. H. Margrain et al.: Colour vision requirements of firefighters 119

Portable fire extinguishers are colour coded according such as reflectance, shape and symbols may be suffi-
to their contents, e.g. a cream extinguisher contains cient for correct identification.
foam. Mistakes in colour identification may result in
the use of an inappropriate extinguisher, e.g. the use Object identification by use of non-colour clues
of a water fire extinguisher on an electrical fire. The
colours to be used in the code are described by Safety signs use colour redundantly, i.e. identification
BS5423. of colour is not necessary for the correct interpretation
Colour is used as the main means of identifying high of the sign. For example a 'no smoking' sign is
and low pressure airline hoses. Power, produced by comprised of a stylized picture of a smoking cigarette
compressor, is conveyed to a variety of cutting, spreading on a white background upon which is superimposed
and lifting equipment by these hoses. A representative a red circular band and cross bar. Although the red
sample of hoses have their colours quantified by the colour indicates that the activity is prohibited, identi-
colour matching technique described earlier. fication of the colour is not essential for correct
interpretation of the sign.
The red and amber lights used by road traffic signals

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Identification of colours that will be confused and low pressure sodium street lights appear to be the
by dichromats same colour to dichromats. However, the colour of
signal lights is not the only means by which they may
After plotting colours of objects that might be confused be interpreted. Their relative position to each other
on a single CIE chromacity diagram, the isochromatic and the sequence in which they are presented may be
zones for the two major classes of dichromatism were sufficient for correct identification. However the task
superimposed. An example of this analysis for the of recognizing traffic signal lights is made more diffi-
colours used on portable fire extinguishers is shown cult for firefighters by two unavoidable features of
in Figure 3a and 3b. Figure 3a shows that colours their job. Firstly, in emergency situations a firefighter
described as cream and red are likely to be confused may have to drive at speed; inevitably this will reduce
by a protanope, because the colours lie within a single the amount of time available for the firefighter to
isochromatic zone. Figure 3b demonstrates that a recognize the signal light. Secondly, firefighters often
deuteranope will not make the same colour confusion. have to drive at night when the task of identification
is somewhat harder because the relative position of
The results of the analysis, for all colour coded the lights is less apparent. Therefore, in some condi-
information, is presented in Table 2. This table iden- tions, particularly when driving at speed in the dark,
tifies all the colours that are likely to be confused by dichromatic firefighters may be unable to correctly
dichromats. However, this does not necessarily mean identify road traffic signals or differentiate the red stop
that the code or object cannot be correctly identified light from low pressure sodium street lighting.
by a dichromatic firefighter, other non-colour clues

Table 2. Colours that firefighters encounter at work that appear the same to protanopes and deuteranopes

Description of object Protanope Deuteranope

Safety signs red, yellow, green red, yellow, green
black, white, green
Retroflective safety signs red, yellow red, yellow
white, green white, green
Road traffic signals and street lights red, amber, LP sodium red, amber, LP sodium
Pipelineidentification green,brown green, brown
violet, blue violet, blue
yellow ochre, orange
Safety code for pipelines yellow, red
Medical gas cylinders orange, grey
violet, blue
Industrial gas cylinders brown, green, red brown, green
black, maroon
black, blue
maroon, grey maroon, grey
dark violet, blue
Portable fire extinguishers red, cream, green
Honda hoses red, black
Amkus hoses blue, green, black blue, green, black
Nike hoses red, green
 120 Occup. Med. Vol. 46, 1996

Table 3. Gas cylinder colours confused by dichromats. Although dichromats confuse several colours used to code the contents of
gas cylinders only a small proportion of gas cylinders are likely to be confused by dichromats. This is because they are able to use
non colour clues such as shape and reflectance to distinguish between cylinders whose colour appearance is the same. The first
column describes the colours that appear the same and the second column identifies cylinders that use these confusion colours.
The third column indicates which cylinders are likely to be confused having considered non colour clues.

Confusion colours Gas cylinders Is confusion likely?

brown, green helium, neon, methyl chloride, sulphur no
dioxide
red, green carbon monoxide, coal gas, hydrogen, yes, between methyl chloride and propane
methane, propane, methyl chloride,
sulphur dioxide
black, maroon oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, yes, between oxygen and acetylene
phosgene, acetylene
blue, black argon, hydrogen cyanide, methyl bromide, yes, between argon and oxygen
oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia,
phosgene

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maroon, grey acetylene, air, ethylene chloride, nitrogen no
brown, red carbon monoxide, coal gas, hydrogen, no
methane, propane, helium, neon

Several colours used to code the contents of pipelines Figure 4. Shows that non colour clues can be used to
differentiate gas cylinders. Cylinders vary in shape (c, d
are confused by dichromats. However,firefightersusually and e) some have a valve protecting shroud (b) and others
identify such pipelines by the text and symbols that have different reflectance (a and c).
are also displayed on the pipeline (Personal commu-
nication: G. Pearson, Fire Experimental Unit, Morton
in Marsh, UK). Therefore dichromatic firefighters are
no more likely to confuse pipeline contents than their 0
colour normal colleagues.
Gas cylinders, both medical and industrial, primarily
have the colour coding displayed on the cylinder to
enable the identification of cylinder contents. Although
dichromats make numerous colour confusions, correct
identification of the cylinder may still be possible by
interpretation of non colour clues: text, shape and the
coloured rings found at the neck of some cylinders.
In a firefighting situation it is unlikely that a firefighter
would be able to get close enough to a cylinder to
read the text on the cylinder neck, therefore in this
analysis we disregarded text as an appropriate means
of identification. Each cylinder whose body colour may
be confused by dichromats was examined in order to
determine if correct identification could be made by
identifying non-colour clues such as the presence of a
valve protecting shroud or cylinder shape. Figure 4 shows
that gas cylinders may be identified by non-colour protanopes it is unlikely that they will be confused.
clues. This is because much more light is reflected from the
Colour confusion data, presented in Table 2, was cream extinguisher than the red one. In this example
used to identify potential cylinder confusions. Table 3 the cream extinguisher has a reflectance of 0.626 and
shows which confusions were considered in this analysis. the red one 0.144 therefore the cream colour appears
Dichromatic firefighters are unable to distinguish relatively light while the red one appears relatively
between cylinders containing propane (red) and methyl dark. Protanopes may also confuse green (halon) with
chloride (green), neither are they able to distinguish cream (foam) fire extinguishers. However, the chance
between argon (blue) and oxygen (black). Protanopes of such a confusion arising is again minimized by
may also confuse acetylene (maroon) with oxygen differences in reflectance (green 0.173 and cream 0.626).
(black). Although acetylene and oxygen cylinders are Table 2 shows that dichromats are also unable to
a different shape, the difference is not pronounced. distinguish between the colours of various high
Therefore, in some situations, their identity may be pressure hoses from different manufacturers. Although
confused, e.g. if the cylinders have fallen over. correct assembly of this equipment is ensured by the
Despite the fact that cream (foam) and red (water) use of special end connectors, which makes the colour
fire extinguishers have the same colour appearance to coding in many instances redundant, correct operation
 T. H. Margrain et a/.: Colour vision requirements of firefighters 121

of some equipment relies upon recognition of hose mats. Hence many of the object confusions made by
colour e.g. hoses used with lift bags. These are dichromats will not be made by anomalous trichromats.
frequently used in pairs to move heavy objects, such In addition, many of the objects that dichromats identify
as vehicles, in a controlled manner so that trapped by non-colour clues appear to be of different colour
occupants may be rescued. Discussion with firefighters to anomalous trichromats. This additional information
reveals that each bag is identified by naming the colour may reduce the length of time it takes to correctly
of the appropriate hose, i.e. a firefighter calls the colour identify objects and possibly decrease the chance of
name to a colleague who controls hose pressure. incorrect identification. However, even with their
Even after non-colour clues have been taken into relatively superior colour vision, deuteranomalous and
consideration it appears that dichromats are still liable protanomalous people who pass the D15 test may still
to confuse several colour coded objects. be unable to distinguish between the blue-green and
black hoses supplied by Amkus. More seriously,
protanomalous individuals who pass the D15 test may
Identification of colours that will be confused confuse the maroon colour used on acetylene gas
by anomalous trichromats cylinders with the black used on oxygen ones. Unlike

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The final stage of the analysis was to determine if the oxygen, which promotes combustion, acetylene is highly
superior colour discrimination of anomalous trichro- flammable and reacts explosively with a range of sub-
mats enables them to distinguish between the colour stances even without the presence of air.16 Although
coded objects confused by dichromats. The colour of firefighters generally treat heated cylinders in a similar
objects likely to be confused by dichromats were way, i.e. cool them with a jet of water from a distance,
re-plotted on the CIE chromacity diagram and the the potential effects of responding incorrectly to this
distance between colours within isochromatic zones cylinder could be catastrophic (Personal communica-
was compared with the separation of the colours used tion: G. Pearson, Fire Experimental Unit, Morton in
in the Farnsworth D15 test. Marsh, UK). An additional problem encountered by
Individuals who pass the D15 test, and do not make protanomalous people is that they are relatively insen-
confusions that cross the hue circle, are capable of sitive to deep red light.17 Not only may this reduced
differentiating many of the colours confused by sensitivity to red compound their difficulty in identi-
dichromats (Table 2). In particular those passing the fying the maroon acetylene cylinder but it will also
D15 test are unlikely to confuse the colours of portable reduce the length of time they have to react to red
fire extinguishers; the red stop road traffic signal with road traffic signals and car stop lights.17 In an inves-
low pressure sodium street lighting; the colours of high tigation into road traffic accidents, Verriest et al.18
pressure hoses supplied by Honda and Nike; the reported that protans have twice as many rear end
colours used on propane and methyl chloride cylinders collisions as normal subjects. We do not believe that
and the colours of argon and oxygen gas cylinders. protanomalous individuals who pass the D15 test are
However, it is possible that mild anomalous trichro- suitable for fire service work. However, deuteranomalous
mats who pass the D15 test, could still confuse the people who pass the D15 test should be allowed to
blue-green and black hoses supplied by Amkus. In work in the fire service despite the fact that they may
addition, protanomalous individuals, who pass the D15 confuse two of the hoses supplied by Amkus. We propose
test, may also confuse oxygen and acetylene gas two reasons for this recommendation. Firstly, Amkus
cylinders. supply specialist equipment that relatively few brigades
are likely to possess and secondly, it is unjustifiable
that the inappropriate use of colour on one piece of
DISCUSSION equipment should prevent many individuals, approxi-
mately 2-3% of all potential recruits, from following
The three-stage analysis used in this investigation has their chosen career. We suggest that deuteranomalous
been able to determine which objects are likely to be people who pass the D15 test be allowed to work in
confused by people from each class of colour defi- the fire service and that the two Amkus hoses be
ciency. Although both protanopes and deuteranopes withdrawn from service.
make numerous colour confusions, the number of
objects they are likely to confuse is reduced by the
Suggested testing procedure
presence of non-colour clues such as shape, symbols
and reflectance. Nevertheless, dichromats are likely to Recruits to the fire service should initially be tested
confuse traffic signal lights with low pressure sodium with Ishihara plates. Individuals who pass this test have
street lighting; several industrial gas cylinders; and normal colour vision and are suitable for admission
various high pressure hoses. Any of these errors might to the fire service without further colour vision testing.
endanger the individual firefighter, his colleague or Individuals who fail the Ishihara plates should be tested
members of the public. Consequently, we propose that with the D15 test to grade the severity of the defect.
dichromats are unsuitable for work in the fire service. If they fail this test, by making one or more colour
Anomalous trichromats who pass the Farnsworth confusions that cross the hue circle, they have severe
D15 test make fewer colour confusions than dichro- colour deficiency and are unsuitable for work in the
122 Occup. Med. Vol. 46, 1996

Figure 5. Flow diagram showing recommended colour vision allow people who are unable to distinguish the colours
testing procedure of basic colour codes to become firefighters.

Firefighter
recruits ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This investigation is part of a larger study funded by

the Home Office as part of their ongoing fire research
Pass
programme. The authors would like to thank all those
from the Fire Service College who provided advice
and in particular Station Officer G. Pearson of the
Home Office Fire Experimental Unit, Morton-in-
Fail Marsh for the supply of information. We would also
like to thank Dr G. Scott of the Home Office Fire
Research and Development Group for his assistance

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in the preparation of this paper.

Unsuitable Suitable
Prot- Deuter- for
for
anomalous firefighting REFERENCES
firefighting anomalous
work work
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agree with the standards they suggest. Neither of these 16. The loss prevention council, Library offire safety Vol 2:Fire and
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only those who fail the City University test should be 17. Cole BL, Vingrys AJ. Do protanomals have difficulty seeing
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 I H. Margrain ef a/.: Colour vision requirements of firefighters 123

APPENDIX I : Specification of colours included in analysis

Co-ordinates, describing an area on the CIE chromacity diagram

Reference Description of colour x y x y x y x y
Traffic signal lights signal red B 0.670 0.320 0.680 0.320 0.700 0.300 0.690 0.300
signal yellow A 0.546 0.426 0.560 0.440 0.617 0.382 0.612 0.382
signal green B 0.105 0.829 0.281 0.478 0.212 0.373 0.027 0.388
Warning lamps yellow 0.543 0.457 0.543 0.428 0.618 0.382 0.612 0.382
low pressure sodium discharge 0.580 0.420
high pressure sodium discharge 0.520 0.430

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Co-ordinates, describing an area on the CIE chromacity diagram
Reference Description of colour x y x y x y x y
Safety signs red 0.069 0.310 0.595 0.315 0.569 0.341 0.655 0.345
BS 5378: Part 2 & yellow 0.519 0.480 0.468 0.442 0.427 0.483 0.465 0.534
BS 5499 Part I
'Firesafety signs' retro-yellow 0.545 0.454 0.487 0.423 0.427 0.483 0.465 0.535
green 0.230 0.754 0.291 0.438 0.248 0.409 0.007 0.703
retro-green 0.007 0.703 0.248 0.409 0.177 0.362 0.026 • 0.399
blue 0.078 0.171 0.198 0.252 0.240 0.210 0.137 ' 0.038
retro-blue 0.078 0.171 0.150 0.220 0.210 0.160 0.137 0.038
white 0.350 0.360 0.300 0.310 0.29 0.320 0.340 0.370
retro-white 0.350 0.360 0.300 0.310 0.285 0.325 0.335 0.375
black 0.385 0.355 0.300 0.270 0.260 0.310 0.345 0.395
fluorescent red 0.690 0.31 0.595 0.315 0.535 0.375 0.610 0.390
-fluorescent white 0.320 0.335 0.290 0.365 0.39 0.405 0.360 0.435

CIE chromaticity co-ordinates

Reference Description of colours used x y
Fire alarms BS 5839: Part 2: 1983 signal red gloss 0.548 0.334
Fire reels and disposable fire extinguishers signal red matt 0.555 0.331
Portable fire extinguishers signal red gloss 0.548 0.334
signal red matt 0.555 0.331
pale cream 0.380 0.401
french blue 0.205 0.195
emerald green 0.259 0.414
fire hydrant plates BS 3251 canary yellow 0.447 0.483

CIE chromaticity co-ordinates

Name of gas Description of cyclinder colour X y
Oxygen black 0.310 0.316
Nitrous oxide blue 0.191 0.180
Cyclopropane orange 0.405 0.349
Carbon dioxide grey 0.334 0.361
Ethylene violet 0.306 0.221
Helium brown 0.493 0.412
Nitrogen grey 0.334 0.361
Oxygen & C02 black 0.310 0.316
Oxygen & helium black 0.310 0.316
Air grey 0.334 0.361
Oxygen & nitrous oxide blue 0.191 0.180
124 Occup. Med. Vol. 46, 1996

CIE chromatlcityco-ordinates
Name of gas Description of cyclinder colour X y
Acetylene maroon 0.353 0.325
Air french grey 0.323 0.356
Ammonia ' black 0.310 0.316
Argon peacock blue 0.240 0.302
Carbon dioxide black 0.310 0.316
Carbon monoxide signal red 0.548 0.334
Chlorine golden yellow 0.485 0.454
Coal gas signal red 0.548 0.334
Ethyl chloride French grey 0.323 0.356
Ethylene dark violet 0.304 0.244
Ethylene oxide dark violet 0.304 0.244
Helium middle brown 0.413 0.380
Hydrogen signal red 0.548 0.334
Hydrogen cyanide peacock blue 0.240 0.302

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Methane signal red 0.548 0.334
Methyl bromide peacock blue 0.240 0.302
Methyl chloride light brunswick green 0.314 0.441
Neon middle brown 0.413 0.380
Nitrogen French grey 0.323 0.356
Oxygen black 0.310 0.316
Phosgene black 0.310 0.316
Propane signal red 0.548 0.334
Sulphur dioxide light brunswick green 0.314 0.441

CIE chromaticity co-ordinates

Description of firefighting equipment Description of cyclinder colour x y
Conti pump air lines to cutters, spreaders, rams etc red 0.616 0.313
blue-green 0.182 0.223
Nike, cutter pressure lines red 0.538 0.313
green 0.266 0.434
Hurst, high pressure hoses lime green 0.312 0.382
orange 0.511 0.363
Klan Lucas, portable compressor lines blue 0.206 0.286
yellow 0.460 0.452
Honda, portable compressor lines black 0.310 0.316
red 0.469 0.321
ACR compressor lines red 0.430 0.322
green 0.211 0.305
Hurst, high pressure air bag lines green 0.301 0.509
yellow 0.470 0.492
grey 0.310 0.316
Amkus, high pressure air line yellow 0.452 0.442
red 0.525 0.330
blue-green 0.270 0.312
black 0.310 0.316

CIE chromaticity co-ordinates

Description of pipeline contents Description of colour x y
water green 0.396 0.485
steam silver grey 0.339 0.351
oil brown 0.493 0.411
gases yellow ochre 0.410 0.396
acid, alkalis violet 0.257 0.221
air light blue 0.219 0.218
liquids black 0.310 0.316
electrical orange 0.480 0.381
for firefighting red 0.590 0.333
warning yellow 0.482 0.444
water auxiliary blue 0.168 0.195