Ohm's Law

If the physical conditions of

the conductor (length, V V

temperature, mechanical strain T1

etc.) remains some, then the

1
current flowing through the
conductor is directly T2

proportional to the potential 2

difference across it’s two ends

i.e. i ∝V  V =iR where R is a  1
2

proportionality constant, known

as electric resistance. i i

(1) Ohm’s law is not a (A) Slope of the line (B) Here tan1 > tan2
universal law, the substances, V So R1 > R2
tan θ= =R i.e. T1 > T2
which obey ohm’s law are = i
known as ohmic substance.
(2) Graph between V and i
for a metallic conductor is a Fig. 19.9
straight line as shown. At
different temperatures V-i curves
are different.

(3) The device or substances which don’t obey ohm’s law Crystal
i
rectifier
e.g. gases, crystal rectifiers, thermoionic valve, transistors etc.
are known as non-ohmic or non-linear conductors. For these
V-i curve is not linear.
V 1
R st = =
Static resistance i tan θ  

ΔV 1
Rdyn = = V
Dynamic resistance ΔI tan φ Fig. 19.10

Resistance
(1) The property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through it, is
known as the resistance.
(2) Formula of resistance: For a conductor if l = length of a conductor A = Area of
cross-section of conductor, n = No. of free electrons per unit volume in conductor,  =
l m l
R=ρ = .
A ne 2 τ A
relaxation time then resistance of conductor ; where  = resistivity of the
material of conductor

Page 1 of 13
 (3) Unit and dimension : It’s S.I. unit is Volt/Amp. or Ohm (). Also 1 ohm
1 volt 108 emu of potential
= = 2 −3 −2
1 Amp 10−1 emu of current
= 109 emu of resistance. It’s dimension is [ ML T A ] .
(4) Dependence of resistance: Resistance of a conductor depends upon the following
factors.
(i) Length of the conductor: Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to it’s length
1
R∝
i.e. R  l and inversely proportional to it’s area of cross-section i.e. A

(ii) Temperature: For a conductor

Resistance ∝ temperature .
If R0 = resistance of conductor at 0oC
Rt = resistance of conductor at toC
and ,  = temperature co-efficient of resistance
Rt =R 0 (1+α t+β t 2 )
then for t > 300oC and
Rt −R0
α=
Rt =R 0 (1+αt ) R 0 ×t
for t  300oC or
R1 1+α t 1
=
R 1+α t
If R1 and R2 are the resistances at t1oC and t2oC respectively then 2 2.

The value of  is different at different temperature. Temperature coefficient of resistance

R 2 −R 1
α=
R ( t −t )
averaged over the temperature range t1oC to t2oC is given by 1 2 1
which gives R2 = R1 [1 +
 (t2 – t1)]. This formula gives an approximate value.
Table 19.2 : Variation of resistance of some electrical material with temperature

Material Temp. Variation of resistance with

coefficient of temperature rise
resistance ()
Metals Positive Increases
Solid non-metal Zero Independent
Semi-conductor Negative Decreases
Electrolyte Negative Decreases
Ionised gases Negative Decreases
Alloys Small positive Almost constant
value

Resistivity (), Conductivity () and Conductance (C)

Page 2 of 13
 l
R=ρ ;
(1) Resistivity : From If l = 1m, A = 1 m2 then R=ρ i.e. resistivity is numerically
A

equal to the resistance of a substance having unit area of cross-section and unit length.
3 −3 −2
(i) Unit and dimension : It’s S.I. unit is ohm  m and dimension is [ ML T A ]
m
ρ=
(ii) It’s formula:
ne 2 τ
(iii) Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It is independent of shape and size
of the body (i.e. l and A).
(iv) For different substances their resistivity is also different e.g. silver = minimum =
1.6  10–8 -m and fused quartz = maximum  1016 -m
ρ insulator >ρalloy > ρsemi-conductor > ρ conductor
( Maximum for fused quartz) (Minimum for silver )

ρt = ρ0 (1+ αΔt )
(v) Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals i.e. resitivity
increases with temperature.
(vi) Resistivity increases with impurity and mechanical stress.
(vii) Magnetic field increases the resistivity of all metals except iron, cobalt and nickel.
(viii) Resistivity of certain substances like selenium, cadmium, sulphides is inversely
proportional to intensity of light falling upon them.
(2) Conductivity : Reciprocal i
of resistivity is called conductivity
1
σ=
() i.e. ρ with unit mho/m and
−1 −3 3 2
dimensions [ M L T A ].
(3) Conductance: Reciprocal
of resistance is known as
1 
C= 1
conductance. R It’s unit is Ω
or  or “Siemen”.
–1 V

Fig. 19.11

Stretching of Wire
l1
If a conducting wire stretches, it’s l2
length increases, area of cross-section
 
decreases so resistance increases but
volume remain constant.

Page
Volume remains constant i.e. A 1l 1 =3 of 13
A2l 2
Fig. 19.12
 Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching it’s length = l1, area of cross-section = A1,
l1
R1 =ρ
A1
radius = r1, diameter = d1, and resistance
Before stretching After stretching
After stretching length = l2, area of cross-section = A2, radius = r2, diameter = d2 and
l2
=R 2= ρ
A2
resistance

() ( ) ( ) ( )
R 1 l1 A 2 l1 2 A 2 r 4 d 4
= × = = 2 = 2 = 2
R 2 l2 A 1 l2 A1 r1 d1
Ratio of resistances before and after stretching

()
2
R1 l
R ∝l 2 ⇒ = 1
R2 l2
(1) If length is given then

( )
4
1 R r
R∝ ⇒ 1= 2
r 4 R 2 r1
(2) If radius is given then
Grouping of Resistance
(1) Series grouping R1 R2 R3

(i) Same current flows through each

V1 V2 V3
resistance but potential difference distributes
in the ratio of resistance i.e. V ∝ R i

R =R + R + R
(ii) eq 1 2 3 equivalent resistance
–
is greater than the maximum value of +
V
resistance in the combination. Fig. 19.15
(iii) If n identical resistance are
V
Req =nR V '=
connected in series and potential difference across each resistance n

(2) Parallel grouping

i1
(i) Same potential difference appeared
R1
across each resistance but current distributes i2
in the reverse ratio of their resistance i.e.
1 i3 R2
i∝
R
i
(ii) Equivalent resistance is given by
R3
1 1 1 1
= + + −1 −1 −1 −1
R eq R1 R 2 R 3
or Req =(R 1 +R2 +R3 )
R 1 R 2 R3
Req =
R1 R2 + R 2 R3 + R 2 R 1
or V

Fig. 19.16

Page 4 of 13
 Equivalent resistance is smaller than the minimum value of resistance in the combination.
R1 R2 Multiplication
Req = =
R1 + R 2 Addition
(iv) If two resistance in parallel

(v) Current through any resistance

i '=i×
[ Resistance of opposite branch
Total resistance ]
Where i = required current (branch current),
R1
i1
i = main current

( )
R2
i 1=i
R1 + R2
i

( )
R1
i 2 =i
R 1 + R2
and i2 R2
(vi)In n identical resistance are connected in
parallel
Fig. 19.17
R i
Req = i'=
n and current through each resistance n

Cell
The device which converts chemical
energy into electrical energy is known as
electric cell. Cell is a source of constant emf
but not constant current. +

(1) Emf of cell (E) : The potential

A
difference across the terminals of a cell when
it is not supplying any current is called it’s –
Anode Cathode
emf.
(2) Potential difference (V): The
voltage across the terminals of a cell when it
is supplying current to external resistance is
+ – –
+
called potential difference or terminal
voltage. Potential difference is equal to the
product of current and resistance of that –
given part i.e. V = iR. +
(3) Internal resistance (r): In case of a
Symbol of cell
cell the opposition of electrolyte to the flow
of current through it is called internal Electrolyte

Page 5 of 13
Fig. 19.18
resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a cell depends on the distance between electrodes
(r  d), area of electrodes [r  (1/A)] and nature, concentration (r  C) and temperature of
electrolyte [r  (1/ temp.)].
A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.
Cell in Various Positions
(1) Closed circuit : Cell supplies a constant R
current in the circuit.
E
i=
(i) Current given by the cell R+r V = iR

(ii) Potential difference across the resistance i

V =iR
(iii) Potential drop inside the cell = ir
(iv) Equation of cell E=V +ir (E > V)

(v) Internal resistance of the cell

r= ( VE −1) ⋅R E, r

(vi) Power dissipated in external resistance Fig. 19.19

(load)
P=Vi=i 2 R= =
V2
R ( )E 2
R+r
.R

E2
Pmax =
Power delivered will be maximum when R=r so 4r .
This statement in generalised from is called “maximum power transfer theorem”.

Pmax = E2/4r

R=r

R
Fig. 19.20

(vii) When the cell is being charged i.e. R

current is given to the cell then E = V – ir and E
< V. C D A B

(2) Open circuit : When no current is taken

from the cell it is said to be in open circuit

Page 6 of 13

E, r

Fig. 19.21
 (i) Current through the circuit i = 0
(ii) Potential difference between A and B, VAB = E
(iii) Potential difference between C and D, VCD = 0
(3) Short circuit : If two terminals of cell are R=0
join together by a thick conducting wire
(i) Maximum current (called short circuit
E
i sc =
current) flows momentarily r

(ii) Potential difference V = 0

E, r

Grouping of Cells
Fig. 19.22

Group of cell is called a

battery. E1 E 2 E 1 E 2

In series grouping of cell’s

their emf’s are additive or E =E +E
eq 1 2 E = E – E (E > E )
eq 1 2 1 2
r =r +r r =r +r
subtractive while their internal eq 1 2 eq 1 2

resistances are always

additive. If dissimilar plates of
cells are connected together Fig. 19.23

their emf’s are added to each

other while if their similar plates are connected together their emf’s are subtractive.

(1) Series grouping : In series grouping anode of one cell is connected to cathode of other
cell and so on. If n identical cells are connected in E, r E, r E, r E, r

series
E eq=nE
(i) Equivalent emf of the combination
r =nr
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance eq
(iii) Main current = Current from each cell i
nE
=i=
R+ nr R

Page 7 of 13
Fig. 19.24
 (iv) Potential difference across external resistance V =iR
V
V '=
(v) Potential difference across each cell n

(vi) Power dissipated in the external circuit

= ( )
nE 2
R +nr
.R

(vii) Condition for maximum power R=nr and

Pmax =n ( ) E2
4r
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr << R.
(2) Parallel grouping : In parallel grouping all anodes are connected at one point and all
cathode are connected together at other point. If n identical cells are connected in parallel
E, r

E, r

E, r

i
R

Fig. 19.25

(i) Equivalent emf Eeq = E

Req =r /n
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance
E
i=
(iii) Main current R+r / n
(iv) potential difference across external resistance = p.d. across each cell = V = iR
i
i'=
(v) Current from each cell n

(vi) Power dissipated in the circuit

P= ( E 2
R+r/n
.R )
(vii) Condition for max. power is R=r / n and
Pmax =n ( ) E2
4r

(viii) This type of combination is used when nr >> R

(3) Mixed Grouping : If n identical cell’s are connected in a row and such m row’s are
connected in parallel as shown. E, r E, r E, r

(i) Equivalent emf of the combination 1

1 2 n
E eq=nE
2
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance of the
nr
r eq = i
combination m
m

Page 8 of 13
R

Fig. 19.26
 nE mnE
i= =
nr mR +nr
R+
(iii) Main current flowing through the load m

(iv) Potential difference across load V =iR

V
V '=
(v) Potential difference across each cell n
i
i '=
(vi) Current from each cell n
nr E2
R= Pmax =(mn)
(vii) Condition for maximum power m and 4r
(viii) Total number of cell = mn
Kirchoff's Laws
(1) Kirchoff’s first law : This law is also
i1
known as junction rule or current law (KCL).
According to it the algebraic sum of currents i4
meeting at a junction is zero i.e. i = 0.
In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the i3
i2
currents entering the junction must equal the sum of
i +i =i +i
the currents leaving the junction. 1 3 2 4
Fig. 19.27
(ii) This law is simply a statement of
“conservation of charge”.
(2) Kirchoff’s second law : This law is also known as loop rule or voltage law (KVL) and
according to it “the algebraic sum of the changes in potential in complete traversal of a mesh
(closed loop) is zero”, i.e. V = 0
(i) This law represents “conservation of energy”.
(ii) If there are n meshes in a circuit, the number of independent equations in accordance with
loop rule will be (n – 1).
(3) Sign convention for the application of Kirchoff’s law : For the application of
Kirchoff’s laws following sign convention are to be considered
(i) The change in R
R
potential in traversing a A i B A i B

resistance in the direction of

current is – iR while in the
opposite direction +iR
– iR + iR
Fig. 19.28

(ii) The change in potential in A

E
B A
E
B
traversing an emf source from

Page 9 of 13
–E +E
Fig. 19.29
negative to positive terminal is +E while in the opposite direction – E irrespective of the
direction of current in the circuit.

(iii) The change in potential in traversing a capacitor from the negative terminal to the
q q
+ −
positive terminal is C while in opposite direction C .

C C
A B A B
– + – +

q q
q q
+ −
C C
(A) (B)

Fig. 19.30

di
−L
(iv) The change in voltage in traversing an inductor in the direction of current is dt while
di
+L
in opposite direction it is dt .
L L
A i B A i B

di di
−L +L
(A) dt dt (B)

Fig. 19.31

Different Measuring Instruments

(1) Galvanometer : It is an instrument used to detect small current passing through it by

showing deflection. Galvanometers are of different types e.g. moving coil galvanometer, moving
magnet galvanometer, hot wire galvanometer. In dc circuit usually moving coil galvanometer are
used.

Page 10 of 13
 (i) It’s symbol : G ; where G is the total internal resistance of the
galvanometer.
(ii) Full scale deflection current : The current required for full scale deflection in a
galvanometer is called full scale deflection current and is represented by ig.
(iii) Shunt : The small resistance connected in parallel to galvanometer coil, in order to
control current flowing through the galvanometer is known as shunt.
Table 19.4 : Merits and demerits of shunt
Merits of shunt Demerits of shunt
To protect the galvanometer coil from burning Shunt resistance decreases the
It can be used to convert any galvanometer into ammeter of desired range. sensitivity of galvanometer.

(2) Ammeter: It is a device R

used to measure current and is
always connected in series with the
‘element’ through which current is
i
to be measured. A

(i) The reading of an ammeter

is always lesser than actual current
in the circuit.
+ –
(ii) Smaller the resistance of an V
ammeter more accurate will be its
reading. An ammeter is said to be Fig. 19.32

ideal if its resistance r is zero.

(iii) Conversion of galvanometer into S

ammeter : A galvanometer may be converted
into an ammeter by connecting a low
resistance (called shunt S) in parallel to the i – ig
i
galvanometer G as shown in figure.
G
(a) Equivalent resistance of the
GS ig
=
combination G+ S
(b) G and S are parallel to each other Ammeter
hence both will have equal potential
ig G=(i−i g )S Fig. 19.33
difference i.e. ; which gives
ig
S= G
(i −i g )
Required shunt

Page 11 of 13
 i
ig=
(c) To pass nth part of main current (i.e. n ) through the galvanometer, required shunt
G
S=
(n−1 ) .

(3) Voltmeter : It is a device used to measure potential difference and is always put in
parallel with the ‘circuit element’ V
across which potential difference is
to be measured.
(i) The reading of a voltmeter
is always lesser than true value. R

(ii) Greater the resistance of i

voltmeter, more accurate will be its

reading. A voltmeter is said to be + –
ideal if its resistance is infinite, V

i.e., it draws no current from the

circuit element for its operation. Fig. 19.34

(iii) Conversion of
galvanometer into voltmeter : A galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by
connecting a large resistance R in series with the galvanometer as shown in the figure.
R
(a) Equivalent
resistance of the
combination = G + R G

(b) According to
ohm’s law V = ig (G + Vg = igG (V – Vg)
R); which gives
Required series
resistance
ig
V
R= −G=
ig
V
Vg
−1 G
( )
(c) If nth part of applied
voltage appeared across
V V
V g=
galvanometer (i.e. n)
then required series
resistance R=(n−1) G . Fig. 19.35
(4) Wheatstone
B
bridge : Wheatstone
bridge is an arrangement
P Q
K1 Page 12 of 13

A C
G
of four resistance which can be used to measure one of them in terms of rest. Here arms AB and
BC are called ratio arm and arms AC and BD are called conjugate arms
(i) Balanced bridge : The bridge is said to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer is
zero i.e. no current flows through the galvanometer or in other words VB = VD. In the balanced
P R
=
condition Q S , on mutually changing the position of cell and galvanometer this condition will
not change.
(ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current will flow from D to B if VD >
(V A −V D )<(V A −V B )
VB i.e. which gives PS > RQ.
(iii) Applications of wheatstone bridge : Meter bridge, post office box and Carey Foster
bridge are instruments based on the principle of wheatstone bridge and are used to measure
unknown resistance.

Page 13 of 13