SURFACE EQUIPMENT

SURFACE EQUIPMENT 2

POWER SUPPLIES FOR ESP SYSTEMS 2

POWER SPECIFICATIONS 2
GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER 3
EARTHING (GROUNDING) REQUIREMENTS 4
LIGHTNING 4
USE OF TRANSFORMERS 5
SINGLE PUMP LOCATIONS 5
MULTIPLE PUMP LOCATIONS 5
OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER 5
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION 6
COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS 7
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS 7
TRANSFORMER RATINGS 8
TRANSFORMERS FOR VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES 8
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS 8
ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS 9
THE SWITCH BOARD AND MOTOR CONTROLLER 9
THE ISOLATING SWITCH 9
CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND FUSES 9
MOTOR CONTACTOR’S 10
OPERATION OF MOTOR CONTACTOR’S 10
OVERLOAD PROTECTION 10
UNDERLOAD PROTECTION 11
LIGHTNING AND SURGE PROTECTION 12
CONTROLLER OPERATION AT START-UP 12
OTHER SURFACE CONTROLLER FUNCTIONS 12
THE SOFT START CONTROLLER 13
INDUCTIVE SOFT STARTERS 14
SCR SOFT STARTERS 14
FACT-PAC 15
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES 15
USE OF VSD'S 16
VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC OF A VSD 17
VSD POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS 18
MONITORING OF VSDS 18
DOWNHOLE ELECTRICAL FAILURES 18
STARTING A VSD 18
OPERATION OF A VSD 18
MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS 19
ADDITIONAL SURFACE EQUIPMENT 20

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Surface equipment

The surface equipment required for an ESP consists of the following:

 Power Supply, this is provided from either mainline power, or from a

generator. The latter is commonly used offshore or in remote areas.

 Transformer(s), this converts the power supply voltage to higher or lower

levels to provide correct surface voltages to match the downhole equipment.

 Switchgear, this commonly comes in the form of a switchboard and provides

the means of a disconnect between the power supply and the ESP system

 Variable speed drive (VSD), this allows the ESP to operate at different
production levels dependant on requirements; This may replace the need for
a switchboard but will then need to have a circuit breaker incorporated.

 Control and Monitoring package, this is intrinsic to the VSD, but will need to
mounted into the switchboard to manage the ESP system.

 vented junction box between the power supply and the wellhead

Power supplies for ESP systems

The electrical power required for an electrical submersible pump is most

conveniently obtained from a public utility, but in many cases the remote or
offshore nature of a production location may require the generation of power on-
site. For an onshore field with multiple wells, construction of a central power plant
and distribution system may be justified. In offshore locations, power will almost
certainly be on manned platforms, but may need to be supplied to individual wells
with sub-sea completions or unmanned platforms. The availability of power and
the costs and reliability of power cables and generators in different environments
will vary widely, and may be a crucial factor in the selection of artificial lift
method.

Power specifications

Power supplied by a central utility will normally be at a voltage higher than that
required for an ESP system, requiring the use of step down transformers. Reliable
operation of an ESP requires a high quality three-phase supply. In some cases
power-conditioning equipment may also be needed to improve the quality of the
power supply, ensuring that the voltages of the three phases are balanced and
surges are filtered out. Imbalances between the phases, or fluctuations in the
supply voltage will cause inefficient operation, and may lead to damage to the
motor, pump, cable and controls. An unbalanced supply will cause the magnetic
field of the motor stator to include a component rotating at synchronous speed in
the opposite direction to the main field. The high relative speed between the
rotor and this component of the magnetic field will cause a very large current to
be induced in the rotor. This will cause inefficient operation of the motor, heating,
and vibration. Accelerated wear and premature failure of the motor or other
downhole components may result. Imbalance in the supply may be caused by
faults in the power generation or distribution system, but will normally be the
result of connecting faulty equipment or other unbalanced loads to the supply.

Ideally the electrical power supplied to an ESP system should conform to the
following specifications:

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 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

 Voltage stability should be better than ± 5%

 Interruptions to the power should be infrequent (<1 per year)

 Voltage imbalance of the phases should be less than 2%.

Generation of electrical power

The costs of installation of high capacity power cables over large distances may
prove prohibitively expensive, and on-site generation of electrical power is then
required. The routine maintenance requirements of ESP system components are
limited, but the addition of generating equipment will increase such requirements
considerably, particularly in dusty conditions. A fuel supply will be required for
the prime mover of the generator, which may either be delivered to the site as
diesel fuel, or gas taken from the production stream. The fuel requirement for a
generator with a reciprocating engine can be estimated by assuming a 30%
thermal efficiency for a diesel engine and a 25% thermal efficiency for a gas
powered engine. Approximately 8 litres of diesel fuel per day will be required per
horsepower.

In order to minimise
loss of production
during generator
maintenance, one
should ensure that,
on installation there is
sufficient spare
generating capacity
to allow production to
continue without
interruption when
shutdowns for
maintenance are
required. This
requires that
equipment for
synchronisation of the
generating plant is
installed. The power
supplied by a
generator may be at
a voltage suitable for
direct connection to
an ESP switchboard,
without the use of a
transformer.

Voltage regulation

The voltage provided by a generator will fall if currents in excess of the generator
rating are drawn, as is likely during start-up of an ESP. Voltage losses at the
generator must be added to those caused by transformers and the downhole
cable, and should not result in a surface voltage of less than 65% of the normal
operating voltage or a downhole voltage of less than 50% of the motor terminal
voltage.

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The advantages of dedicated on-site generation compared with a central utility

are:

 Reduction of capital expenditure compared with cable installations

 Higher power quality may be possible

 Surges due to lightning and other supply users may be reduced

 May permit the use of gas which would otherwise be flared as fuel for prime
mover

 Voltage regulation with high ESP starting currents may be better than when
the power is taken from a grid via a transformer

Disadvantages include:
 High operating expenditure for generator maintenance and fuel deliveries, if
a large number of single units are required
 Production deferral if pumps must be shut down during generator
maintenance
 Increased probability of third party interference compared with centrally
generated power
Earthing (grounding) requirements

All switchgear, control circuits, and primary power circuits must be grounded to
reduce the likelihood of injury to personnel if a fault occurs.

The downhole circuit may be operated without grounding to permit operation of

certain types of downhole sensor, and to permit continued operation in the event
of a minor earth leakage on a single conductor. This requires that the downhole
circuit is isolated from the switchboard by a step-up or isolation transformer.

The casing, wellhead, vented junction box, and the switchboard, should be
connected to a common earth.

Lightning

Lightning strikes will induce large DC voltages in the supply system. Although
transformers will prevent transmission of the DC voltage to the downhole pump a
transient voltage spike may be induced in transformer secondaries, due to the
rapid change in voltage. Voltage spikes can be represented as the sum of a
series of sine waves at very high frequencies. At high frequencies the inductive
impedance of conventional copper grounding cables may be many times the
ohmic resistance, and specialised techniques are required to ensure that a low
impedance path to earth is provided for high frequency transients. Efficient
grounding will reduce the likelihood of failures due to lightning strikes.

Use of transformers

Electrical power is generated and distributed as alternating current (AC), due to

the ease and efficiency with which the voltage can be increased or decreased.
Transformers are electromagnetic devices, which are used to convert AC power
from one voltage to another. Electrical power taken from a distribution system or
generator will normally not be at a voltage suitable for direct connection to an ESP
switchboard and controller. The voltages used to minimise losses within
distribution systems may be many thousand volts, and are too high for use with
ESPS. A high voltage transformer is used to provide a low voltage power supply
to the ESP switchboard and controller.

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A further transformer is normally connected between the pump switchboard and

the vented junction box to provide the exact voltage required by the pump. In
addition this transformer can be used to "isolate" the downhole motor and cable
from the switchboard and supply, allowing the downhole electrical circuit to be
operated without an earth connection. An earth fault on a single conductor will
therefore not cause the pump to be shut down.

Single pump locations

In cases where a transformer supplies a single pump the output of the high
voltage transformer may be set to the voltage required by the downhole pump.
In this case the switchboard and controller are connected directly to the vented
junction box. However this option may require the use of a high voltage
switchboard and controller and prove more expensive than the use of low voltage
controls and a step-up transformer.

In some cases, the complexity and cost of switchgear and controls for high
voltages, or the use of a VSD, will require the reduction of the supply voltage to a
lower level than the voltage required by the downhole pump. An additional
transformer must then be used at the output of the controller to increase the
voltage to the level required by the downhole pump.

Multiple pump locations

A single high voltage transformer may be used to supply a number of ESP

installations, but each of the installations will require an additional transformer to
obtain the correct pump voltage. In addition, these transformers will isolate the
downhole circuits from the supply, preventing an earth fault on a single pump
from causing all installations to shut down.

When the output from a single high voltage transformer is distributed to a

number of pump installations, the power to each of the switchboards is supplied
at a nominal voltage such as 38OV or 66OV. The use of a multi-tap transformer
between the switchboard output and the vented junction box allows the voltage
supplied to each pump to be adjusted individually to the optimum value for the
motor and operating conditions.

Operation of a transformer

A transformer consists of two electromagnetic coils whose magnetic fields are

linked by a laminated iron core, around which coils are wound. A current passing
through one of the coils will cause the core to become magnetised. The magnetic
flux created will pass through the second coil, and any change in the flux will
cause a voltage to be induced in the second coil. Application of an alternating
current (AC) voltage to one of the coils will create an oscillating magnetic field in
the core, inducing an AC voltage in the other coil. The core is made up of iron
laminations separated by insulating layers which reduce the flow of eddy currents
within the core.

The output of a transformer secondary is proportional to the rate of change of the

magnetic flux linking the coil. Direct current (DC) voltages, which may be induced
in a power distribution system by lightning, are unable to pass a transformer.
However, the induced DC current will cause the magnetic flux within the
transformer to change and cause transient voltages to be induced in the
transformer secondary. These surges or spikes may cause serious damage to
surface and downhole equipment.

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Transformer construction

The two coils (or windings) of a transformer are referred to as the 'Primary' and
'Secondary' coils. The supply voltage is connected to the primary coil, and the
output taken from the secondary coil. In an ideal transformer the ratio of the
input voltage to the output voltage would be the same as the ratio of the number
of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary. In practice,
losses occur and the output voltage is slightly less than predicted by the number
of turns. To allow a single design of transformer to provide a range of output
voltages from the supply voltage, many transformers have a number of
connections (tappings) on both the primary and secondary coils, allowing the
number of connected turns in each of the coils to be changed.

The ratio of the currents in the primary and secondary windings of a transformer
is inversely proportional to the number of turns. The product of volts and amps
(measured as VA or kVA) in the primary and secondary windings is therefore the
same.

The life expectancy of a transformer is at least 25 years, and is therefore many

times that of other components of an ESP system. Multi-tapping transformers
should always be used to permit adjustment of the downhole supply voltage and
to allow for future changes of cable, pump or motor. Operation of a transformer
above its rating will severely shorten its life.

In some designs of transformers, ‘auto-transformers’ a single coil is used for both

primary and secondary circuits. The high voltage circuit is connected across the
ends of the coil and the low voltage circuit is connected between one end of the
coil and an intermediate tapping. As with a conventional transformer the ratio of
the voltages is given by the ratio of the number of turns connected in each circuit.

In a transformer with two windings, the primary and secondary circuits are
connected only by the magnetic flux of the coils, and the effects of electrical
faults are largely confined to the circuit in which they occur. The use of single
winding auto-transformers does not allow isolation of the circuits. Any earthing
fault within the pump or cable will therefore cause the power supply to be shut
down. DC voltages induced in the power distribution circuit, such as lightning
strikes, will be passed by an auto-transformer to the downhole equipment, and
may cause breakdown of the cable or motor insulation.

Under no-load conditions, the output voltage of a transformer secondary will be

very close to the value predicted on the basis of the ratio of the turns in the
primary and secondary windings. The output voltage will fall under load by an
amount which is expressed as the "regulation" of a transformer. The percentage
regulation of a transformer is defined as the difference between the no-load
secondary voltage and the voltage with full load current, expressed as a
percentage of the no-load voltage. A typical figure for the regulation of a sheet
wound power transformer is 5%, which will mean that the output voltage at full
load will be 5% less than the no-load voltage.

Transformers are available with coil and sheet windings, which may be
manufactured from aluminium or copper. The lowest regulation is obtained with
copper wire wound transformers.

When starting an ESP the current drawn may be five times greater than the
normal current, which will cause a large (25%) reduction in transformer output
voltage for a transformer with 5% regulation, if the transformer design was sized
for the continuous load. As discussed above, two transformers are commonly

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used to supply power to an ESP. The effects of the regulation within each of the
transformers must be added to obtain the surface voltage at start-up.

If transformers are undersized, the voltage drop resulting from transformer and
cable losses under start-up conditions may prevent the motor from providing
sufficient torque to start the pump, or may cause the controller to shut down.

Rules of thumb, which may be used for guidance, are:

 The voltage supplied to the controller at start-up should not be less than 65%
of the operating voltage

 The voltage at the motor terminals at start-up should not be less than 50% of
the operating voltage

Cooling of transformers

Transformers are cooled by circulation of oil or by embedding the windings in a

thermally conductive polymer. The ambient temperature in which the
transformer is used will determine the efficiency of cooling. At high ambient
temperatures the continuous rating of the transformer may need to be reduced to
prevent damage, unless the cooling can be increased by use of a radiator or
cooling fan. Provision is made on some designs of liquid cooled transformers for
connection of an external heat exchanger or radiator to reduce the temperature
of the transformer oil.

NEMA ratings for a transformer are given for a specified operating environment.
If a transformer designed for outdoor use is installed in an enclosed space the
maximum continuous load rating will be reduced.

Three phase transformers

Transformers for three phase power supplies are available with the three primary
and three secondary coils wound on a common core. However, in many cases
individual single phase transformers are used for each of the three phases.

The primary and secondary windings of the transformers can each be connected
in either star or delta configurations, giving four possible combinations of input
and output voltages and currents for a given input voltage.

Transformer ratings

The capacity of a transformer is limited by the maximum voltage and the

maximum current to which its windings may be subjected, and the magnetic flux
at which saturation of the core occurs. The nominal kVA ratings for transformers
are commonly given for operation with 60Hz supplies and specified input
voltages. At lower input voltages or lower supply frequencies the ratings must be
decreased.

The standard kVA ratings for transformers are calculated from the no-load output
voltage and the full load current. In practice a transformer can deliver
approximately 95% of its rated power output on a continuous basis.

Transformers for variable speed drives

The voltage induced in the secondary coil of a transformer is proportional to the

rate of change of the magnetic flux through the core. In order to achieve a given
rate of flux change at a lower frequency the maximum flux must be increased. To

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avoid magnetic saturation at low frequencies the cross section of the transformer
core must therefore be increased. In addition the mechanical loads due to the
magnetic flux will be increased. Transformers subjected to the low frequencies
(10Hz) generated by VSD’s at start-up must have larger cores and be more
strongly constructed than those used only for fixed supply frequencies.

The current drawn and supplied by a VSD is not sinusoidal, and will generate
harmonics in both the supply circuit and the load circuit. The hysteresis losses
and eddy currents may cause a transformer designed for a sine wave current to
overheat. The transformers used with VSD’s should be specifically constructed
for such service.

Current and voltage transformers

Measurement of the large currents and voltages supplied to ESP’s can be done
directly, but is more easily done by means of current and voltage (or potential)
transformers. These transformers contain two windings of which the primary is
connected to the power supply circuits, and the secondary is connected to the
measuring circuit. This allows measurements of current and voltage to be made
without a direct connection between the measuring circuitry and the power
circuits. The range of the measuring circuitry can be altered by selection of
different tappings on the transformer secondaries.

When a step-up transformer is installed between the controller and the vented
junction box, the current and voltage transformers should be installed in the
secondary circuit of the step-up transformer to ensure accurate measurement of
the downhole voltage and current. If the current and voltage transformers are
installed at the switchboard, allowance must be made for the change in current
and voltage at the step-up transformer.

Isolation transformers

A transformer may be used to isolate the downhole ESP circuit from the power
supply circuit. This allows the downhole circuit to operate without an earth
connection, permitting production to continue if a minor earth fault occurs on a
single phase in the downhole circuit. Isolation may be provided by step-up
transformers if this is required, or may be provided by dedicated isolation
transformers.

The switch board and motor controller

The switch board and motor controller allows the downhole motor to be started
and stopped, and to be connected or disconnected from the electrical supply. In

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addition, electronic or electromechanical systems are provided to protect the

motor and pump against overload, underload, or unbalanced conditions. More
complex logic can be included for failure detection and analysis. Other
switchboard applications may include flowline protection, monitoring of downhole
sensors, and computer assisted operation functions. Some of the main functions
of a switchboard are described below.

The isolating switch

At the electrical input from the supply is a manual isolating switch, which is used
to completely disconnect all components within the motor controller from the
electrical supply. This switch must normally be in the "off" position to enable the
control box to be opened, but should never be used to shut down the system.

Circuit breakers and fuses

The isolating switch is connected to circuit breakers or fuses, which are designed
to open if an overload or short circuit condition develops. Overloads may be due
to electrical short circuits or increased mechanical loading of the motor due to a
mechanical failure within the downhole assembly.

The circuit breakers do not respond instantly to overload conditions, since the
instantaneous motor current when starting may be many times greater than the
continuous current drawn under normal operating conditions. If an overload or
short circuit condition persists however, the circuit breakers will open,
disconnecting the ESP system from the power supply. The delay before the
circuit breakers open will depend on the magnitude of the overload, but if a motor
fails to accelerate to its operating speed sufficiently quickly the circuit breakers
will open.

The overload protection provided by circuit breakers or fuses is limited by the

requirement that they should be capable of handling the high motor start up
current. Their primary function is protection of the electrical supply system rather
than protection of the motor and pump.

Motor contactor’s

An induction motor, such as those used on ESPS, draw instantaneous starting

currents many times greater than the normal operating current. The inductive
nature of the load of an ESP system will also cause high transient voltages to be
created when the supply current is disconnected. To handle the starting currents,
and to prevent arcing when the motor is stopped, contactor relays are used. The
contactor’s are closed electrically by applying a low voltage to the control coils of
the contactor relays. If power to the control coils is interrupted a spring returns
the contactor’s to the open position. The functions of the electromechanical
contactor’s described here can also be performed using solid state relays, in
which the switching operation is performed by static semi-conductor devices.
Applying or removing power from the control circuit performs starting and
stopping of the motor in normal operation.

Operation of motor contactor’s

During start-up and normal operation the control voltage is applied to the
contactor’s allowing current to flow to the motor. Interruption of the control
voltage will cause the contactor’s to open, stopping the pump. The control
voltage may be interrupted manually or may be interrupted by an automatic
controller following detection of a fault condition. Interruption of the power will
cause very high voltages to be induced across the contactor relays due to the

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reactive nature of the load. The contactor relays are designed to ensure that any
arcing caused by the high induced voltage is immediately quenched.

Overload protection

Following startup and stabilisation of a well the normal current drawn by an ESP
should be measured. Any subsequent increase in the current drawn will indicate
a increase in mechanical loading of the motor, or an electrical fault. The
controller should be adjusted so that if the current exceeds the normal value by
more than approximately 20% over a predetermined period, the power to the
motor is cut off. An overload is therefore defined as an increase in the electrical
current above the normal operating value.

Increased current may be the result of changes in supply voltage, since either
increasing or decreasing the supply voltage will increase the current drawn by the
motor. Enhanced protection of the motor and pump can be obtained by
monitoring the current, voltage and power factor in one or more of the phases
using current and voltage transformers. This allows the power supplied to the
motor to be accurately measured. An overload condition can then be detected
with greater precision than permitted by measurements of current alone. Either
an immediate or a delayed shutdown can then be initiated according to the
magnitude of the overload, linked to the period of the overload. Overloads of a
greater magnitude will be allowed to persist for less time. Overloads may be
caused by:

 Electrical failure

 Mechanical failure of the downhole equipment

 An increase in the density of the fluid being pumped.

 A change in the supply voltage

 If an overload condition is detected an ESP system will be automatically

stopped, and will require manual resetting.

Underload protection

The current drawn by an ESP should remain approximately constant under stable
producing conditions. Following startup and stabilisation of a well the current
drawn should be measured. Any subsequent decrease in the current drawn will
indicate a reduction in mechanical loading of the motor, which may be the result
of mechanical failure or inefficient pump operation. To prevent damage to the
pump or motor, the power supply to the motor should be shut off if a decrease in
current is detected. However this is a rule of thumb, under no circumstances
should the setting be below 60% (no load current) of the motor nameplate
current. This may mean setting the underload as high as 90% of the operating
current. The lower current limit is typically set at 85% of the normal operating
current. In wells fitted with SSSVs or automatic master valves the limit should be
set at approximately 90% of normal operating current to ensure detection of
valve closure before damage is caused to the pump or motor. This may result in
a greater number of spurious underload trips.

Underload may be caused by:

 A pump-off condition, when the hydrostatic pressure at the pump intake falls
below the minimum value at which the pump can operate.

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 Cavitation within the pump.

 Gas-lock, when excess quantities of gas are ingested into the pump.

 A decrease in the density of the produced fluid.

 The closing of a sub surface safety valve or flow line valve, preventing flow
through the Pump

 A tubing leak, allowing fluid to return to the annulus from the pump discharge

Following an underload shutdown, the ESP may be restarted automatically after a

predetermined delay, under the control of a backspin relay, if underload is likely
to be due to gas locking or pump off. In wells fitted with SSSVs or automatic
master valves, pumps should not be programmed to restart automatically, as the
underload may be caused by valve closure. For critical operations (such as deep
hot wells) consideration should be given to the fitting of additional surface control
systems which act directly on either overpressure or no flow indications to sense
shut in of a surface valve

Lightning and surge protection

Lightning and surge protection is provided by electronic devices with a non-linear

voltage-current relationship, known as varistors. These devices are manufactured
from metal oxides (Metal Oxide Varistors or MOVS) or silicon carbide.

These devices are connected across the power supply at the input to the control
panel, and between the power supply and ground. They draw very little current
at normal operating voltages but pass large currents when subjected to voltage
surges such as those due to lightning. The devices allow surge currents to pass to
earth without causing damage to the pump or controller.

Controller operation at start-up

At start-up, the overload protection will be over-ridden for a pre-set period to

allow the motor to accelerate to the normal operating speed. If the motor fails to
reach its operating speed within this period, a shut-down will be initiated. Unless
a check valve is fitted, the underload protection should also be over-ridden.

Other Surface Controller Functions

Many conditions other than a simple overload or short circuit can damage an ESP
system. Control circuits can be added to detect other faults allowing the ESP to
be automatically stopped if a fault condition is detected. If a temporary condition
is detected the controls may allow automatic restarting after a predetermined
delay, under the control of a backspin relay.

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Following shutdown of an ESP, well fluid will drain back through the pump causing
reversed rotation (Back-Spin), unless a check valve is installed in the tubing. A
backspin relay detects the small voltage generated by the rotation of the motor
and prevents start-up of the motor if back spin is detected. Automatic start-up or
re-start of an ESP system should normally be controlled by a backspin relay.

Functions which can be performed by a controller include:

 Automatic restarting when the power is restored after an interruption of the

power supply of Shut down of the system if a no-flow condition is detected

 Monitoring of the incoming voltage will allow shutdown in the event of loss of
a phase, phase voltage imbalance, or phase reversal, all of which will result in
vibration and damage to the downhole equipment.

 Detection of phase to phase, or phase to ground short circuits will cause a

shutdown of the ESP system.

 External contacts may be provided to allow changes in flowline or bottom hole

pressure to initiate shut down or startup of the ESP

All the functions of a controller can be implemented using electromechanical

relays and logic but most of the controllers now available use microprocessor
systems to monitor the operation of an ESP system and to determine the
appropriate response to any fault condition detected.

Motor Pump Cable

Overload x x x
Underload x x
Current Unbalance x
Short Circuit x x x
Stall x

Overvoltage x x
Undervoltage x
Voltage Unbalance x
Frequency x

Rotation x
Power Factor x x
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Ground Fault x x
Backspin x x
 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

The table above shows the feature or condition that the K095 controller monitors
and the component it can then protect.

The soft start controller

In order to reduce start up currents and transient loads on the motor and pump a
"soft" start controller is often used. This reduces system voltage drops, electrical
and mechanical stresses on a motor, which may otherwise lead to premature
failure. The controller limits the initial current in-rush for a short period following
start-up. Two types of soft starters are available.

Inductive soft starters

The simplest form of soft start controller consists of a large inductance

(reactance) which is placed in series with the motor circuit. This reduces the
voltage applied to the cable by an amount proportional to the current flowing,
limiting the surge current. Under start-up conditions the voltage drop across the
inductance will be large causing a temporary reduction in the voltage applied to
the motor terminals. After start-up the inductance is bypassed (short circuited)
and may be removed from the circuit. An inductive soft starter is a simple and
reliable device, but is larger than comparable solid state devices. The inductance
required will depend on the motor operating voltage and current, cable losses,
and the characteristics of the supply transformer. Inductive soft starters should
be sized to limit the motor terminal voltage at start-up to approximately 50% of
the operating voltage.

The reliability of inductive soft starters is higher than SCR devices under oilfield
conditions, particularly in higher voltage applications. They are therefore
particularly suitable for use in applications where a high voltage controller is
connected directly to a pump, without a step-up transformer.

SCR soft starters

The second type of soft start controller uses solid state devices called Silicon
Controlled Rectifiers (SCRS) to block the current to the motor during the first part
of each AC half cycle. This reduces the AC voltage seen by the motor and allows
the current to be limited. An SCR is essentially a switch, which will only conduct
electricity in one direction. Applying an electrical pulse to the “Gate” turns on the
SCR. Once started, the current through the SCR will continue to flow until the
voltage across it is reduced to zero or reversed. In a soft start controller the SCR
is initially switched on just before the end of a voltage half cycle allowing only a
small current to pass, before the SCR is switched off by the reversal of the
voltage. As the motor accelerates the SCR is switched on progressively earlier
during each half cycle until the motor has reached its operating speed. Two SCR's
are used per phase with one controlling the positive voltage half cycles and the
other the negative half cycles.

A small voltage drop occurs across an SCR. To avoid loss of power in continuous
operation the soft start controller is by-passed when the motor has reached its
normal operating speed. Since the soft start controller is only used during start-
up, one controller can be used for multiple wells on a platform or location. An SCR
soft starter is smaller, lighter and more flexible than an inductive soft starter, and
can be used with a wide range of motors of different sizes with minimal
adjustment.

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 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

Fact-Pac

FACT-PAC (Full Amp Capacity Transformer, Power and Control) is a skid mounted, surface
control package that includes the transformer and the motor control switchboard built together
in a single, transportable unit

Features of the FACT-PAC are:

 Strength to withstand lightning, exceeding
ANSI standards,
 Equipment versatility
 Unexcelled surge protection for the motor,
cable and control components,
 Power factor correction capacitors,
 Built in soft start for the larger size units,
 Co-ordinated, safe over current and fault
protection that does not require the
nuisance and cost of fuses,
 Provisions for remote radio/modem
control,
 Provisions for down hole pressure and
temperature monitoring, and
 Tertiary windings in the main transformer
section eliminate the need for potential
and control transformers.
Variable speed drives

The speed of an induction motor is dependent on the frequency of the applied AC

supply. Although the supply voltage can easily be increased or reduced with a
transformer it is considerably more difficult to alter the frequency. Variable speed
drives (also known as Variable Frequency Converters or VFCs and Variable Speed
Controllers or VSCS) are standard equipment for many industrial applications
using three phase induction motors. Two main types are in widespread use and
are commonly known as:

 Voltage Source VSDs (pulse width modulated)

 Current Source VSDs

In a variable speed drive the AC output is created by first rectifying the three
phase AC input voltage to provide a variable direct current (DC) supply. The DC is
smoothed using inductances and capacitors. The DC supply is switched on and
off electronically to provide the three oscillating voltages of a three phase supply.
By controlling the speed at which the DC supply is switched on and off, the
frequency of oscillation of the output voltage, and hence the speed of rotation of
the motor, can be varied.

DIODE IGBT

MOTOR

Feedback loop

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 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

Switching the DC voltage in this manner does not generate a sine wave output,
and will generate harmonics at multiples of the supply frequency in both the input
and output circuits of the VSD. Voltage spikes are likely to be present in the
output circuit. Both of these effects can be detrimental to the operation of a
downhole pump system, causing heating of the motor and increasing the
electrical stress on the cable and motor insulation.

PWM Output Voltage

Locl/HP-IB 35665 Adrs: 11 Plot Adrs: 30

Prnt Adrs: 1 Disk Adrs: 0
Date: 01-23-97 Time: 09:40:00 AM

A: CH1 Lin Spec X:56 Hz Y:196.78 mVrms

300
mVrms

LinMag
30
mVrms
/div

0
Vrms
0Hz 3.2kHz
B: CH1 Time X:35.8887 ms Y:640.425 mV
1
V

Real
200
mV
/div

-1
V
0s 124.8779ms

Save/Rec Def Disk: Internal

Date: 01-23-97 Time: 09:43:00 AM

A: CH1 Lin Spec X:56 Hz Y:263.621 mVrms

300
mVrms

LinMag
30
mVrms
/div

0
Vrms
0Hz 3.2kHz
B: CH1 Time X:14.0381 ms Y:655.319 mV
1
V

Real
200
mV
/div

-1
V
0s 124.8779ms

PWM Output Current

Use of VSD's

In addition to generating variable frequency power, VSD’s provide the pump and
motor protection functionality of the controllers described above. The protection
logic incorporated within a VSD is more complex than with fixed speed drives,
since the correct current and voltage will depend on the frequency supplied. A
separate controller is not required when a VSD is used.

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 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

The electronics must be protected from dust and humidity, often requiring an air
conditioned enclosure. Provision must be made for maintenance and repairs to
the equipment, and availability of spare parts. The use of VSDs should
particularly be considered in the following circumstances:

 As a temporary measure when an ESP is used for multirate well testing.

 Wells whose productivity is expected to decline due to reservoir depletion.

 For stabilisation of an unreliable power supply.

 As a temporary measure to permit start-up and cleanout of wells where

insufficient head is developed with a fixed frequency supply to lift the
completion fluid.

 On locations with suitable enclosures and maintenance facilities (e.g. offshore

platforms).

 As an alternative to a workover and pump change in wells producing outside

the range of installed pumps.

 Permit use of small diameter pumps in casing limited wells

Voltage characteristic of a VSD

The nameplate voltage of a motor is specified for operation at 60Hz, and for
operation at other frequencies this must be adjusted in direct proportion to the
supply frequency. The current drawn by a motor is determined by the torque
required to turn the load, which is proportional to the square of the rate of
rotation. At low rotational speeds, the current drawn by a motor will be much less
than the nameplate current, and the voltage losses in the cable will be reduced.
A VSD must therefore regulate the output voltage according to the frequency
supplied and the current flowing to ensure that the correct voltage is maintained
at the motor terminals. If the applied voltage is higher than the optimum voltage,
the power factor will decrease, while if it is lower than the optimum the slip will
increase causing an increased motor current. In either case the efficiency of the
motor will decrease.

Torque (T) is equal to certain mechanical constants of the motor (k) times flux (F)

V/Hz Ratio and Torque V/Hz Ratio Control

CONSTANT HP
460
k = Constant
Base Frequency

Torque = k IW  = Flux V/F

VOLTAGE (V)

IW= Working Current 230

0
. 0
460 V =7.67 30 60 90
60 Hz
FREQUENCY (Hz)

times working current (IW). The working current is a reflection of the load.

When the V/Hz ratio or flux is constant, then torque is dependent upon the load.
An increase in the load will increase the torque.

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 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

VSD power supply requirements

The variable speed controller is able to operate correctly even with unstable or
unbalanced line voltages or reversed supply phases. However if the input voltage
falls to a level at which the VSD is unable to maintain the correct output voltage
the unit will shut down.

Monitoring of VSDs

With a VSD, the DC current and voltage are monitored to permit detection of
overload, underload and voltage transients. The SCR's and filtering of the DC
supply will reduce the effect of voltage transients in the supply voltage.
Monitoring of the DC voltage and current allows the power drawn by the motor to
be accurately measured, since the DC current measurement is not affected by
the power factor of the load. Most AC current measurements are the resultant of
the reactive and resistive currents, and will cause the power transferred to the
motor to be over-estimated under reactive conditions. Detection of over and
under-load conditions is therefore more precise when a VSD is used.

Downhole electrical failures

AC voltages and currents in each of the three output phases are monitored by the
VSD, and compared with the current and voltage in the DC bus to verify correct
operation. Any short circuit between a phase and ground or between two phases
will cause an Instantaneous Overcurrent Trip (IOT), causing an immediate shut
down of the VSD.

Starting a VSD

The VSD can reduce wear and stress on the motor and pump by allowing "soft"
starts and controlled shut downs. In a soft start, the supply frequency is set to
10HZ, and the voltage increased from zero. The motor can develop full torque
with the current maintained at less than 150% of the nameplate current. The
supply frequency is then increased to bring the motor to the operating speed.
The low starting voltage enables faults or short circuits to be detected and the
system shut down without exceeding the full load current.

Operation of a VSD

Electrical losses occur in a VSD, particularly when they are operated at low
speeds. The power factor at low speeds may also be very low. Similar flexibility
and efficiency to that provided by a VSD may be obtainable at lower cost by use
of a pump designed with an excessive number of stages, with the flow rate
restricted by a surface choke. This is known as overstaffing.

VSD’s can provide power at frequencies up to 120Hz. This allows a pump to

produce four times the head at twice the flowrate compared with operation at
60Hz. In practice, continuous operation above 75Hz will lead to rapid wear of the
pump and should be avoided.

VSD’s are equipped with clamps which limit the maximum and minimum
frequencies they are able to produce. These should be used to limit continuous
pump operation to a range of approximately 35-75Hz.

Monitoring and measurement systems

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 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

More sophisticated techniques for monitoring and controlling the operation of

pumps have been developed. The use of microcomputer based recording
systems allows numerous parameters to be recorded, over extended periods of
time. Transmission of the data to a central control room permits remote
monitoring of the operation of a large number of pump systems, allowing timely
intervention if a malfunction occurs. Two way communication systems allow the
remote operation of some of the functions of the controller system, as well as
status indication.

Parameters, which can be recorded and may be useful in monitoring the

operation or diagnosis of failures of ESPs include:

 Current and voltage of each phase.

 Supply frequency.

 Downhole pressure, temperature, and flow rate.

 Flowline and annulus pressures.

 Motor operating parameters.

Additional Surface Equipment

If the flowline discharges into a test or storage tank a level switch may be used to
switch off the pump when the tank is full.

An over-pressure switch on the flowline is used to prevent excessive pressures

being applied to the line as a result of the closure of downstream valves. An
underpressure or flow detection switch may be used to shut down the pump if the
flowline pressure falls below a pre-set limit. This enables detection of leakage
from the flowline or closure of SSSVs and flowline valves.

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 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

The cable armour, jacket and insulation is permeable to hydrocarbons, and will
act as a conduit for gas from the wellhead. In order to allow gas which has
diffused into the cable to escape before reaching the switchgear, a vented
junction box is placed between the well and the switchgear. Within the box the
cable is stripped to the bare conductors to allow gas to escape from within the
cable insulation. The junction box is placed between the switchboard and the
wellhead, and provides a point at which the electrical supply to the motor can be
disconnected during workovers. Unless a feed through connection is used at the
well head the ESP cable should be cut taking the distance to the junction box into
account.

PAGE 19