TCP/IP model

o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model
by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two

or more lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.

Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant

part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to
identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the
data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from
the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and
received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP
datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP
datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit
(MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over
 the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as
LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination
are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can
be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as
routers.

ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address
from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of
the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP
address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply.
The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and
to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a
router is unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such
as disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP
protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
 o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is
reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination
device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not
correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate
routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and
destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol
and Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the
error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports
the error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the
address of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user
datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
 o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is
active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the
damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be
received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to
be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units
known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number
which is required for reordering the frames to form an original
message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them
based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact with
the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in
application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to
access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of
plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has
the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol
that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This
protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify
the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use
the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name
to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a way
that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol
used for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by
the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference
between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in
the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail
and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol,
which does not require IP to communicate with another computer. IP is required
by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same
data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP
model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this
layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way
at the receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking .
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:
 TCP/IP and OSI

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is
responsible for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on
behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the
data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link
layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing
are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols
which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire
network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in
the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that
most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with
information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set
of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing
packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does this by
assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device
and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend.
When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data,
which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns
an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine the best
route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of
the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them
into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email
from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing
tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that
the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer,
it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they
were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that
resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate
packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole
transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection
make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport
layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not
verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP
rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible
for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the
upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols
present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used
by the World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers
and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP
with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser
needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software
similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to
maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the
clocks on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in
situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without the
presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer
reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server
can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model that is responsible for providing communication between hosts
(computers or other devices) on a network. It is also known as the transport
layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
1. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is
transferred reliably between hosts by using techniques like error correction
and flow control. For example, if a packet of data is lost during transmission,
the host-to-host layer can request that the packet be retransmitted to ensure
that all data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
breaking up large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be
transmitted over the network, and then reassembling the data at the
destination. This allows data to be transmitted more efficiently and helps to
avoid overloading the network.
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network connection,
and then demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple
devices to share the same network connection and helps to improve the
utilization of the network.
4. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-
oriented service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-
end, without the need for intermediate devices to be involved in the
communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a
file to host B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller
segments, add error correction and flow control information, and then transmit
the segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host layer in host B will
receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file. Once the file
has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will
acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable
connection between host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments,
and reassembling the segments at the destination. It is also responsible for
multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing end-to-end
communication between the two hosts.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet
Protocols is how the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some
Common Internet Protocols include:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web Browsers
and Websites.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent
over the Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and receive
data.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application layer
presentation layers.
itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a

OSI follows a vertical approach.
horizontal approach.

In the OSI model, the transport layer

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not
provides assurance delivery of
provide assurance delivery of packets.
packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
better covered and are easy to
TCP/IP model.
replace with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only

Connectionless and connection-
provides connectionless (IP) services.
oriented services are provided by the
The transport layer (TCP) provides
network layer in the OSI model.
connections.
 Physical
Layer
The Physical layer of the TCP/IP model is responsible for the physical transmission of
data between two systems. This includes the cables, connectors, and other hardware
used in networking. In addition, some standard protocols like Ethernet and Wi-Fi are
also part of this layer.

The Physical layer ensures that data packets are correctly transmitted over a physical
medium, such as a cable. It also handles data transmission synchronization, ensuring
that packets are sent and received in the correct order.

Without the Physical layer, it would be impossible for two systems to communicate with
each other since there would be no way for them to transmit data between them
physically. The Physical layer is an essential part of the TCP/IP model and is critical for
successful communication.
Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer of the TCP/IP model is responsible for packing data into frames and
handling their transfer between two nodes. This layer is also known as Layer 2 in the
OSI model. It is responsible for error detection and correction, ensuring data frames are
not corrupted during transmission.
The Data Link layer also handles the access of shared networks, allowing multiple
nodes to access the same physical link. In addition, it provides security by encrypting
data frames when necessary.

The Data Link layer is essential for successful communication between two systems,
and its protocols, like Ethernet and Wi-Fi, are essential for the functioning of modern
networks. Without this layer, it would be impossible to ensure reliable data transmission
between two systems.

Network Layer
The Network layer of the TCP/IP model is responsible for routing packets to their
destination. It handles addressing, ensuring that each packet is sent to the correct
system. In addition, it provides flow control and congestion avoidance mechanisms that
ensure data transmission is efficient and reliable.

Some common protocols used in this layer include IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol), and ARP (Address Resolution Protocol). These protocols
are essential for routing packets across the internet.

The Network layer is essential for successfully transmitting data between two systems
as it’s responsible for ensuring that packets reach their destination. With this layer, it is
possible to route data between different hosts on the internet.

Transport Layer
The Transport layer of the TCP/IP model is responsible for providing reliable end-to-end
communication between two systems. It handles flow control, ensuring that data
packets are sent at a reasonable rate and not dropped during transmission. The
Transport layer also provides error checking and correction, allowing errors to be
corrected before the packet reaches its destination.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are two
common protocols used in this layer. These protocols provide reliable communication
between two systems, ensuring that data is transferred accurately and without issues.

The Transport layer is important for successful communication between two systems as
it provides a reliable connection to handle errors and accurately deliver data packets.
Without this layer, ensuring reliable communication between two systems would be
impossible.

Application Layer
The Application layer of the TCP/IP model is responsible for providing services and
applications that use the underlying protocols for communication. This includes email,
web browsing, file transfer, streaming media, and more. It also handles authentication
and encryption to ensure data is secure during transmission.

Common application-level protocols include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP

(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and Telnet. These
protocols provide the necessary functions for applications to communicate with each
other.

The Application layer is essential for successful communication between two systems
as it provides the interface for users to interact with networks and applications. With this
layer, it is possible to use the underlying protocols meaningfully.

This layer allows us to use the internet and other networks for communication,
collaboration, and entertainment. It is the most visible part of the TCP/IP model, and its
importance should not be overlooked.
IV. How the Layers Work Together

The different layers of the TCP/IP model are designed to work together to facilitate
network communication. Data flows from the top layer (the Application layer) down
through the other layers until it reaches its destination. Protocols and services ensure
data is correctly packaged and transferred reliably at each layer.
For example, when a user sends an email, the data flows from the Application layer to
the Transport layer, which is packaged into a TCP segment. It then travels through the
Network and Data Link layers until it reaches its destination. At each stage, protocols
ensure that data is sent and received accurately.

Once the data has reached its destination, it follows the same path in reverse: from the
Data Link layer, through the Network layer, to the Transport layer, and back up to the
Application layer.

The layers of the TCP/IP model have been designed to work together to provide a
reliable network communication system. Without them, sending and receiving data
reliably over the internet would be impossible.

Understanding how each layer works and what protocols are used makes it possible to
configure a network for maximum efficiency and reliability. This ensures that data can
be sent quickly and accurately between two systems, no matter where they may be
located. Understanding the layers of the TCP/IP model is essential for anyone
interested in networking and communication.
V. Real-world Applications of the TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model is used in many real-world applications, from streaming music and
movies to web browsing and online shopping. The different layers are essential for
providing a reliable connection between two systems, ensuring that data is sent
accurately and quickly.

For example, when you open a web page or stream music, the Application layer
protocol (HTTP) is used to retrieve the data from the server. The Transport layer then
packages the data into a TCP segment and sends it to your device through the Network
and Data Link layers. This process ensures that data is sent quickly and reliably,
allowing you to browse the web or stream music without issues.

The TCP/IP model is also used in email communication, file transfers, voice and video
calls, and more. The various layers of the model are essential for ensuring that data is
sent accurately and quickly between two systems.

The TCP/IP model has revolutionized how we communicate online. It provides a reliable
way to send and receive data between two systems, no matter where they may be
located. Understanding how the layers work together makes it possible to configure a
network for maximum efficiency and reliability. This ensures that data can be sent
quickly and accurately between two systems, making communication over the Internet
easier than ever before.