VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.1 Scalars and Vectors

The term scalar refers to a quantity whose value may be represented by a single (positive or
negative) real number. It is also defined as a quantity which has magnitude only. The x , y and
z we used in algebra are scalars, and the quantities they represent are scalar quantities. If we
speak of a body falling a distance of L at time t , or the temperature T at any point in a bowl of
soup whose coordinates are x , y and z , then L, t , T, x , y and z are all scalars. Other scalar
quantities are mass, density, pressure, volume e.t.c. Voltage is also a scalar quantity, although the
complex representation of a sinusoidal voltage, an artificial procedure, produces a complex
scalar, or phasor, which requires two real numbers for representation, such as amplitude and
phase angle, or real part and imaginary part.

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction in space. We shall be concerned with two
and three dimensional spaces only, but vectors can be defined in n-dimensional space in more
advanced applications. Force, velocity, displacement and acceleration are examples of vectors.
Each quantity is characterized by a magnitude and a direction.

We shall mostly be concerned with scalar and vector fields. A field (scalar or vector) may be
defined mathematically as some function of that vector which connects an arbitrary origin to a
general point in space. A function that assigns a vector to a point in the plane or a point in space
is called a vector field. We usually find it possible to associate some physical effect with a field,
such as the force on the compass needle in the earth’s magnetic field or the movement of smoke
particles in the field defined by the vector velocity of air in some region of space. Both scalar
fields and vector fields exist.

1.2 Vector Notation

To distinguish vectors from scalars, vectors are denoted by boldface symbols, for example A, or

letters with an arrow on top to show its vector character, for example A . Scalars on the other
hand are written in italic form, for example, A

1.3 Unit Vector

A unit vector is a vector with a length or magnitude of one. In this course, we will denote a unit
 
vector by lower case a . For example, a unit vector in the direction of the vector A is denoted by
 
a A and is determined by dividing A by its magnitude or absolute value


 A
aA   1.0
| A |

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Considering the x , y and z planes of the Cartesian coordinate system, and using the unit
  
vectors a x , ay and az along the x , y and z axes of the Cartesian coordinate system, an arbitrary
vector can be written in component form:
   
A  Axa x  Ay a y  Az a z 1.1

In terms of components, the absolute value of this vector will be defined by


| A | Ax  Ay  Az
2 2 2
1.2

1.4 Vector Algebra

With the definitions of vectors and vector fields accomplished, we may proceed to define the
rules of vector arithmetic, vector algebra and later of vector calculus. Some of the rules will be
similar with those of scalar algebra, some will differ slightly and some will be entirely new and
strange. This is to be expected because a vector represents more information than does a scalar,
and the multiplication of two vectors will be more involving than the multiplication of two
scalars.

1.4.1 Vector Addition

Vector addition can be done graphically and also algebraically. The graphical method can be
accomplished by drawing both vectors from a common origin and completing the parallelogram
or by beginning the second vector from the head of the first and completing the triangle. Either
method is extended to three or more vectors.

Figure 1.0 Vector addition

   
It must be noted that vector addition is commutative, i.e. A  B  B  A . The order in which
addition is done does not matter. Vector addition also obeys the associative law i.e.

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     
A  (B  C )  ( A  B )  C . Note that when a vector is drawn as an arrow of finite length, its
location is defined to be at the tail end of the arrow.

Again, considering the x , y and z planes of the Cartesian coordinate system, and using the unit
  
vectors a x , ay and az along the x , y and z axes of the Cartesian coordinate system, two
       
arbitrary vectors A  Axa x  Ay a y  Az a z and B  Bxax  Bya y  Bzaz can be added as follows:
 
A  B 

        
( Axa x  Aya y  Aza z )  (B xa x  B ya y  B za z ) = ( A x  B x )a x  ( A y  B y )a y  ( A z  B z )a z

1.4.2 Vector Subtraction

The rule for the subtraction of vectors follows easily from that for addition of vectors, for we
   
may always express A  B as A  ( B ) , the sign or direction of the second vector is reversed and
this is then added to the first using the rule for vector addition.

Figure 1.1 Vector Subtraction

1.4.3 Vector Multiplication

Multiplying a vector by a scalar is equivalent to multiplying the vector’s magnitude by the scalar.
The magnitude changes but its direction does not change when the scalar is positive, although it
reverses the direction when multiplied by a negative scalar. Multiplication of a vector by a
   
scalar also obeys the distributive and associative laws, i.e. k ( A  B )  kA  kB and
     
( A  B )  C  A  (B  C ) respectively.

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1.4.4 The Vector Scalar Product
One of the ways in which two vectors can be combined is known as the scalar product. When
we calculate the scalar product of two vectors the result, as the name suggests is a scalar, rather
than a vector.

   
Let A and B be two vectors in a plane. Then the dot product of the vectors A and B is the real
number


A



B

   
AB = | A || B | cos  1.3
 
where  is the angle between the vectors A and B and can vary from 0 to  .

From (1.3),  
AB
cos     1.4
| A || B |

Note that the symbol for the scalar product is the dot . , and so we sometimes refer to the scalar
product as the vector dot product.

Example 1
     
Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors v  a x  2a y and w  2a x  a y .

Solution
   
v w = | v || w | cos 

from which
 
v  w (1 )( 2 )  ( 2 )( 1 ) 4
cos    = 
    5  5 

| v || w | 1  2
2 2
2
2
1
2

4
 4 1 4 
cos   and  = cos   = 36 . 9
5 5

1.4.5 Properties of the scalar product

Commutativity and Distributivity
Suppose that for two vectors in the previous have lengths of 4 and 5 units respectively, and that

the angle between them is 60 . Then,

   
v w = | v || w | cos 


= 4  5 cos 60

1
= 45
2

= 10
   
Further, suppose we want to find w v . The definition of w v is

   
w v = | w || v | cos 
 
= | w || v | cos 


= 5  4 cos 60

1
= 5 4
2

= 10
So, we see that the result is the same whichever way around we perform the calculation. This is
true in general:
   
v w = w v

This property of the scalar product is known as commutativity. Thus the scalar product is
commutative.

Another property of the scalar product is that it is distributive over addition. This means that

      
A  (B  C )  A  B  A  C