Zimbabwe National Defence University

DMT 102 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 1 PAPER 2

Chapter 1
Author: Department:
Dr J. Mushanyu Aerospace Engineering
August 18, 2019

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 Abstract

This course highlights various types of mathematical thinking including direct, indirect and induc-
tive proofs, with careful treatment of quantified statements. Topics include set theory, introduction
to probability, vectors and geometry in space, matrices and determinants, complex numbers and
differential equations. This course, which is mostly about algebraic ideas and compliments the ma-
terial in DMT102, introduces and develops concepts (including complex numbers and the algebra
of polynomials) necessary for a first course in algebra. Our goal is the elementary theory of vectors,
matrices and determinants, and their applications to solving systems of linear equations.
Chapter 1

Vectors and the Geometry of Space

A vector is a quantity that is characterized by magnitude and direction. We also use the term
length for magnitude. A scalar, on the other hand, is a quantity which has magnitude only. To
differentiate the types of quantities, let’s consider a typical vector, displacement or change of
position. In order to specify displacement, we need to know two things: how far? and in what
direction? In other words, we need to specify distance and the direction. Thus we see that
distance is a scalar whereas displacement is a vector.

Consider the following two situations:

1. A complete stranger to Zimbabwe is in Harare and wants to travel to Masvingo. Is it sufficient

to simply tell them that Masvingo is 350 kilometers from Harare?

2. A well-informed Zimbabwean wants to travel from Harare to Masvingo. Will it be sufficient

to tell them that Masvingo is 350 kilometers from Harare?

Clearly, the information in the first case is not sufficient as the stranger would also want to know
the direction in which to travel. However, in the second case, it is assumed that the person already
has some idea of the location of Masvingo relative to Harare and so specifying only distance would
suffice.

The following are examples of vectors: force, displacement, acceleration, momentum and velocity .
However, the following quantities are scalars and not vectors: area, volume, distance, speed, energy,
work, electrical resistance, temperature, mass and time.

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1.1 Basic Definitions and Notation

−→
Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP defining the direction, the magnitude of the
vector being indicated by the length of the arrow. The tail end O of the arrow is called the origin
or initial point of the vector, and the head P is called the terminal point or terminus. This arrow
−→
representing the vector is called a directed line segment. The length |OP | is the magnitude of the
line segment from O to P .
Q terminal point
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initial point
P

Figure 1.1: Directed line segment

Vectors can be represented in text by bold-case letters, such as A, B, C and so on or lower-case

boldface letters such as a, b, c and so on. When written by hand, however, vectors are often
→
−
denoted by letters with arrows above them, such as → −
a , b and so on or a bar above, such as a, b
and so on or a bar below, such as a, b and so on. When the initial point of the vector is fixed, it is
called a fixed or localized vector, otherwise, it is a free vector.

1.2 Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector of unit length. A unit vector is sometimes denoted by eb or b

e . Therefore,

|b
e| = 1.

Any vector can be made into a unit vector by dividing it by its length, that is,
u
e= .
|u|
b

u
So is a unit vector in the direction of the vector u.
|u|

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In three-dimensional space R3 , we denote the unit vectors in the positive x -axis, positive y-axis and
positive z -axis by i, j, k respectively. Thus the position vector of a point (x, y, z) is
xi + yj + zk.
In a similar way, the position vector r of a point (x, y) in two-dimensional space R2 is
xi + yj.
In the notation above, the numbers x, y, z are the components of the vectors.

We also denote vectors

  in R3 and R2 using column vectors. For example the vector xi + yj + zk
x  
3 2 x
in R is denoted by y  and the vector xi + yj in R is denoted by .
y
z

1.3 Magnitude or Length of a Vector

The magnitude or length of a vector r is denoted by |r|. If a vector r = xi + yj + zk, then it can
be easily shown by use of Pythagoras’ theorem that
p
|r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
p √ √
For example if r = i − 2j + 2k, then the magnitude |r| = 12 + (−2)2 + 22 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 = 3.
Example 1.3.1. Given A = 3i − 2j + k, B = 2i − 4j − 3k and C = −i + 2j + 2k, find the magnitudes
of (i) C, (ii) A + B + C and (iii) 2A − 2B − 5C.
p
Solution: (i) |C| = | − i + 2j + 2k| = (−1)2 + 22 + 22 = 3.
(ii) A + B + C = 3i − 2j + k + 2i − 4j − 3k − i + 2j + 2k
p = (3 + 2 − 1)i +
√(−2 − 4√+ 2)j + (1 − 3 + 2)k =
2 2
4i − 4j + 0k. Then |A + B + C| = |4i − 4j + 0k| = 4 + (−4) = 32 = 4 2.
(iii) 2A − 3B − 5C = 2(3i − 2j +pk) − 3(2i − 4j − 3k) √ − 5(−i + 2j + 2k) = 5i − 2j + k. Then
|2A − 2B − 5C| = |5i − 2j + k| = 52 + (−2)2 + 12 = 30.
Example 1.3.2. Find the component form and magnitude of the vector A having initial point
(−2, 3, 1) and terminal point (0, −4, 4). Then find a unit vector in the direction of A.

Solution: The component form of A is

A = (0 − (−2), −4 − 3, 4 − 1) = (2, −7, 3)
which implies that its magnitude is
p √
|A| = 22 + (−7)2 + 32 = 62.
The unit vector in the direction of A is
 
A 1 2 −7 3
U= = √ (2, −7, 3) = √ ,√ ,√ .
|A| 62 62 62 62

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1.4 Parallel Vectors

Two non-zero vectors A ans B are parallel if there is some scalar c such that A = cB.

Example 1.4.1. Vector A has initial point (2, −1, 3) and terminal point (−4, 7, 5). Which of the
following vectors is parallel to A? (i) B = (3, −4, −1) and (ii) C = (12, −16, 4).

Solution: Writing A in component form

A = (−4 − 2, 7 − (−1), 5 − 3) = (−6, 8, 2).

(i) Because B = (3, −4, −1) = − 12 (−6, 8, 2) = − 21 A, then B is parallel to A.

(ii) In this case, you want to find a scalar c such that

(12, −16, 4) = c(−6, 8, 2)

12 = −6c ⇒ c = −2
−16 = 8c ⇒ c = −2
4 = 2c ⇒ c = 2.

Because there is no c for which the equation has a solution, the vectors are not parallel.

Definition
Two or more vectors are said to be collinear vectors, when they are along the same lines or parallel
lines.

Theorem 1.4.1. Let a and b be non-zero and non-collinear vectors. Then xa + yb = 0 implies
that x = y = 0.

Proof. Suppose xa + yb = 0 where x 6= 0. This means that a = −( xy )b. Thus the vectors a and
b are parallel. In other words they are parallel to the same line or are collinear. Contradiction.
Hence x must be equal to zero and so yb = 0. Therefore y = 0 as b 6= 0.

Theorem 1.4.2. Let a and b be non-zero and non-collinear vectors. Then x1 a + y1 b = x2 a + y2 b

implies that x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise for you.

1.5 Laws of Vector Algebra

If A, B and C are vectors and m and n are scalars, then

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 (i) A + B = B + A Commutative Law for Addition.

(ii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C Associative Law of Addition.

(iii) m(nA) = mnA = n(mA) Associative Law for Multiplication.

(iv) (m + n)A = mA + nA Distributive Law.

(v) m(A + B) = mA + mB Distributive Law.

1.6 The Dot or Scalar Product

So far we have studied two operations with vectors, vector addition and multiplication by a scalar,
each of which yield another vector. In this section you will study a third vector operation, called
the dot product, this product yields a scalar, rather than a vector.

The dot or scalar product of two vectors A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, denoted

by A · B (read A dot B) is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of
the angle θ between them, that is,

A · B = |A||B| cos θ = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3

where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Example 1.6.1. Given A = 2i + 4j + 6k and B = i − 3j + 2k. Compute the scalar product of A

and B.

Solution: From the definition, the scalar product is given by

A · B = (2) · (1) + (4) · (−3) + (6)(2) = 2 − 12 + 12 = 2.

The following laws are valid

(i) A · B = B · A Commutative Law for Dot Products.

(ii) A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C Distributive Law.

(iii) m(A · B) = (mA) · B = A · (mB) = (A · B)m, where m is a scalar.

(iv) i · i = j · j = k · k = 1, i · j = j · k = k · i = 0.

(v) If A · B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular.

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1.6.1 Angle Between Two Vectors

If θ is the angle between two non-zero vectors A and B, then

A·B
cos θ = .
|A||B|

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θ
-
B

Figure 1.2: The angle between two vectors

1.6.2 Definition of Orthogonal Vectors

The vectors A and B are orthogonal if A · B = 0. Two non-zero vectors are orthogonal if and
π
only if the angle between them is θ = .
2
Example 1.6.2. For A = 3i − j + 2k, B = −4i + 2k, C = i − j − 2k and D = 2i − k, find the angles
between the following pairs of vectors. (i) A and B (ii) A and C (iii) B and D.

Solution:
A·B −12 + 4 −8 −4
(i) cos θ = = √ √ = √ √ = √ . Because A · B < 0,
 |A||B|
 14 20 2 14 5 70
−4
θ = cos−1 √ = 2.069radians.
70
A·C 3+1−4 0
(ii) cos θ = = √ √ = √ = 0. Because A · C = 0, A and C are orthogonal.
|A||C| 14 6 84
π
Furthermore, θ = .
2
B·D −8 + 0 − 2 −10
(iii) cos θ = = √ √ =√ = −1. Consequently, θ = π.
|B||D| 20 5 100

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Exercise
Prove that a parallelogram ABCD is a rhombus if and only if its diagonals are orthogonal.

1.7 The Cross or Vector Product

Many applications in physics, engineering and geometry involve finding a vector in space that is
orthogonal to two given vectors. In this section we will study a product that will yield such a vector.
The cross or vector product of A and B is a vector C = A × B (read A cross B),
A × B = |A||B| sin θn,
where θ is the angle between the vectors, and the unit vector n is perpendicular to both A and B,
with A, B and n forming a right-handed system.

The following laws are valid.

(i) A × B = −B × A Anticommutative Law.

(ii) A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C Distributive Law.
(iii) m(A × B) = (mA) × B = A × (mB) = (A × B)m, where m is a scalar.
(iv) i × i = j × j = k × k = 0, i × j = k, j × k = i, k × i = j.
(v) If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, then
i j k
A × B = A1 A2 A3 .
B1 B2 B3

(vi) The magnitude of A × B is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B.
(vii) If A × B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are parallel.

Example 1.7.1. Given A = i − 2j + k and B = 3i + j − 2k, find the following. (i) A × B

(ii) B × A (iii) B × B.

Solution:
(i)
i j k
−2 1 1 1 1 −2
A × B = 1 −2 1 = i− j+ k = 3i + 5j + 7k.
1 −2 3 −2 3 1
3 1 −2
(ii)
i j k
1 −2 3 −2 3 1
B × A = 3 1 −2 = i− j+ k = −3i − 5j − 7k.
−2 1 1 1 1 −2
1 −2 1

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B
|B| sin θ

y θ
-
A

Figure 1.3: The vectors A and B form adjacent sides of a parallelogram

(iii)
i j k
B × B = 3 1 −2 = 0.
3 1 −2
Example 1.7.2. Find the area of the parallelogram determined by A = i+j−3k and B = −6j+5k.

Solution:
i j k p √
A × B = 1 1 −3 = −13i − 5j − 6k = (−13)2 + 52 + 62 = 230
0 −6 5
which is the desired area.
Example 1.7.3. Find a unit vector that is orthogonal to both A = i − 4j + k and B = 2i + 3j.

Solution: The cross product A × B is orthogonal to both A and B.

i j k
A × B = 1 −4 1 = −3i + 2j + 11k.
2 3 0
p √
Because |A × B| = (−3)2 + 22 + 112 = 134, a unit vector orthogonal to both A and B is
A×B 3 2 11
= −√ i+ √ j+ √ k.
|A × B| 134 134 134

1.8 The Scalar Triple Product

For vectors A, B and C in space, the dot product of A and B × C

A · (B × C)
is called the scalar triple product. The following laws are valid.

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 (i) A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) = volume of a parallelopiped having A, B and C
as edges.
If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k, B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k and C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k, then
A1 A2 A3
A · (B × C) = B1 B2 B3 .
C1 C2 C3

(ii) As a consequence, the volume of the parallelopiped is 0 if and only if the three vectors are
coplanar. That is, if the vectors A = (A1 , A2 , A3 ), B = (B1 , B2 , B3 ) and C = (C1 , C2 , C3 )
have the same initial point, then they lie in the same plane if and only if
A1 A2 A3
A · (B × C) = B1 B2 B3 = 0.
C1 C2 C3
Example 1.8.1. Find the volume of the parallelopiped having A = 3i − 5j + k, B = 2j − 2k and
C = 3i + j + k as adjacent edges.

Solution:
3 −5 1
2 −2 0 −2 0 2
V = |A · (B × C)| = 0 2 −2 = 3 −(−5) +(1) = 3(4)+5(6)+1(−6) = 36.
1 1 3 1 3 1
3 1 1

Example 1.8.2. Determine whether the four points A(−2, 0, 3), B(1, 0, 0), C(1, −3, 3) and D(4, 1, −2)
are coplanar.

−−→
Solution: We construct three vectors from the four points, a = AD = (6, 1, −5),
−→ −→
b = AB = (3, 0, −3), c = AC = (3, −3, 0). The scalar product is
6 1 −5
a · (b × c) = 3 0 −3 = 6(−9) − (1)(9) + (−5)(−9) = −18 6= 0.
3 −3 0
Hence not coplanar.

1.9 The Vector Triple Product

Let A, B and C be a triple of vectors. Then the vector

A × (B × C)

is called the triple vector product of A, B and C in that order. The evaluation of a vector triple
product can be made easier using the vector identity

A × (B × C) = (A · C)B − (A · B)C.

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Example 1.9.1. Given the vectors A = i + 3j − k, B = −2i + j − 5k and C = 3i − 2j + 7k. Verify
the vector identity
A × (B × C) = (A · C)B − (A · B)C.

Solution: Starting with the left hand side

i j k
B × C = −2 1 −5 = −3i − j + k.
3 −2 7

i j k
A × (B × C) = 1 3 −1 = 2i + 2j + 8k.
−3 −1 1
The right hand side gives

(A · C) = 3(1) + 3(−2) + 7(−1) = −10, (A · C)B = −10(−2i + j − 5k) = 20i − 10j + 50k.

(A · B) = (−2)(1) + (3)(1) + (−5)(−1) = 6, (A · B)C = 6(3i − 2j + 7k) = 18i − 12j + 42k.

Then
(A · C)B − (A · B)C = (20 − 18)i + (−10 + 12)j + (50 − 42)k = 2i + 2j + 8k.

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“Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing
that it is stupid.”— Albert Einstein

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