CHAPTER 5

PROJECTION

Objectives
Objectives of studying this chapter are:
➢ To learn to explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections
➢ To understand “Glass Box Method” of orthographic projection
➢ To learn to mention the principal views and combination of views
➢ To learn to convert pictorial drawings into orthographic or multi view projection
➢ To learn to represent circular surfaces, hidden surfaces in orthographic projection
➢ To know the precedence of lines in multi view projection
➢ To know the necessity of pictorial projection
➢ To learn the procedure to construct box for isometric and oblique drawings
➢ To learn to convert orthographic projection into isometric projection

7.1 Introduction
All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two-dimensional surface (paper) be used to
communicate ideas and the physical description of a variety of shapes. To provide necessary information about
an object to the manufacturer or to any other concerned party, it is usual practice to provide projection(s) of that
object.

7.1.1 Projection
Projection is the process in which the rays of sight are taken in a particular direction from an object to form an
image on a plane. If straight lines (rays) are drawn from various points on the contour of the object to meet a
transparent plane, thus the object is said to be projected on that plane. The figure or view formed by joining, in
correct sequence, the points at which these lines meet the plane is called the projection of the object.

7.1.2 Picture Plane/Plane of Projection

The plane or surface on which the
rays of sight are projected and
combined to form a view is called
picture plane.

7.1.3 View
The image formed on a picture
plane by projecting rays of sight is
called a view.

7.1.4 Projector
The lines or rays drawn from the
object to the plane are called
projectors.

Fig. 7.1 Projection and Its Different Elements

7.2 Types of Projection
1. Orthographic/ multi view Projection
2. Pictorial Projection
3. Perspective Projection

7.2.1 Orthographic Projection

'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. When the projectors are
perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it is known as orthographic projection. Following
six views are possible in orthographic projection of a solid object.
 a. Top View
b. Front view
c. Left View
d. Right View
e. Rear view
f. Bottom view

Fig. 7.2 Orthographic Views

7.2.2 Pictorial Projection

The Projections in which the description of the object is completely understood in one view is known as pictorial
projection. They have the advantage of conveying an immediate impression of the general shape and details of
the object, but not its true dimensions or sizes. Pictorial projections may be of two types as
a. Axonometric
b. Oblique
7.2.2.1 Axonometric Projection
It is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which an object appears to be rotated to show its all three
dimensions. Axonometric projections are classified according to how the principle axes are oriented relative to
the projected surface. There may be three types as:
i. Isometric
ii. Dimetric iii. Trimetric

Fig. 7.3 Axonometric Projections

7.2.2.2 Oblique Projection

It is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which projectors are parallel to each other but they are not
perpendicular to the picture plane. The angle is usually kept 150-450. This may be of two types:
i. Cavalier Projection: In this case,
the dimensions along all the axes
are plotted in full scale.
ii. Cabinet Projection: In this case,
the dimensions along the diagonal
axis are plotted by reducing it to
half of the actual value.
Dimensions along other axes are
plotted in full scale.

Fig. 7.4 Oblique Projection

7.2.3 Perspective Projection
It is a type of pictorial projection in which projectors are not parallel to each other and they occur at an angle to
the picture plane in such a way that they converge to a point as if an observer sees the view on the picture plane
from that point. In case of perspective projection observer is considered to be at finite distance where in case of
any other type of projection observer is considered to be at infinity.
 Fig. 7.5 Perspective Projection

7.3 Details of Orthographic Projection

Basically, Orthographic projection is any single projection made by dropping perpendiculars to a plane. In short,
orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact shape of an object by dropping perpendiculars
from two or more sides of the object to planes, generally at right angles to each other; collectively, the views on
these planes describe the object completely. Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic projection
in order to solve for advanced technical data involving the spatial relationship of points, lines, planes, and solid
shapes. The most common means of understanding these types of orthographic projection is - The Glass Box
method.

7.3.1 The Glass Box Method

The Glass Box method was used primarily for descriptive geometry problems. It can be suitably used for
understanding the generation of orthographic views. Key points of “the glass box method” are:
✓ The user imagines that the object is enclosed in a transparent “box” said to be “the glass box”.
✓ Each view of the object is established on its corresponding glass box surface.
✓ To obtain a view, perpendicular projectors are drawn originating at each point of the object and
extending to the related box surface.
✓ The box is imagined as hinged so that it can be unfolded on to one flat plane (the paper). The box is
unfolded to obtain the arrangement of views.
In figure 7.6, the vertical lines of sight (A) and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed to meet at infinity. The
line of sight is always perpendicular to the plane of projection, represented by the surfaces of the glass box (top,
front, and right side). Projection lines(C) connect the same point on the plane of projection from view to view,
always at right angle. A point is projected up on the plane of projection where its projector cuts that image plane.
In the figure 7.6, point 1, which represents a corner of the given object, has been projected on to the three
primary image planes. When it intersects the horizontal plane (top plane of projection), it is identified as 1H,
when it intersects the frontal plane (front plane of projection), it is identified as 1F, and where it intersects the
profile plane (right side plane of projection), it is labeled 1P.
Fig. 7.6 The Glass Box Method
7.3.2 The Six Principal Views
Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes, each at right angles to each other. On these planes,
views of the object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, right side, left side, bottom and rear. Consider
the object and its projection in fig. 7.2; think now of the six sides, or the plane of the paper; the front is already
in the plane of the paper, and the other sides are, as it were, hinged and rotated in position as shown in figure
7.5.
✓ The projection on the frontal plane is called the front view or vertical projection or front elevation.
✓ The projection on the horizontal plane is called the top view or horizontal projection or plan.
✓ The projections on the left/right sides are called left/right profile views or left/right side view or left/right
profile projection or left/right side elevation.
✓ By reversing the direction of sight a bottom view is obtained instead of a top view or a rear view instead
of a front view.
In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal views are needed on one drawing. All these views
are principal views. Each of the six views shows two of the three dimensions of height, width and depth. In
general, when the glass box is opened, its six sides are revolved outward so that they lie in the plane of the paper.
And each image plane is perpendicular to its adjacent image plane and parallel to the image plane across from it.
Before it is revolved around its hinged fold line (reference line).A fold line is the line of intersection between any
hinged (adjacent) image planes.
The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views. Each is vertical. The top and bottom planes are in
the horizontal plane. But in most cases the top, front, and right sides are required.

rd
Fig. 7.7 Six Principal Views by Glass Box Method (3 Angle)
7.3.3 Arrangement of Views
As discussed earlier, the most usual combination selected from the six possible views consists of the top, front and
right side views. Sometimes the left- side view helps to describe an object more clearly than the light side view.
Orthographic views are arranged in two techniques as
a. 1st angle projection (Used in European countries; ISO standard) also known as British system
b. 3rd angle projection (Used in Bangladesh, Canada, USA, Japan, Thailand) also known as American
system.

First Quadrant

Fig. 7.8 Relative Position of Object in First and Third Angle Projection System
Fig. 7.9 Standard Symbol to Indicate First and Third Angle Projection in Drawing
 st
7.3.3.1 Glass Box Concept for 1 Angle P rojection

Generation
of Views

Unfolding
the paper

Final
arrangement of
views on paper

Fig. 7.10 Glass Box Presentation of 1st Angle Projection and Arrangements of Views
 rd
7.3.3.2 Glass Box Concept for 3 Angle Projection

Generation
of Views

Unfolding
the paper

Final
arrangement of
views on paper

rd
Fig. 7.11 Glass Box Presentation of 3 Angle Projection and Arrangements of Views
7.3.4 Orthographic Projections of Parallel, Inclined and Oblique Surfaces
✓ An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane of projection, as a point when it is
perpendicular to the plane and shorter than true length when it is inclined to the plane.
✓ Similarly, a surface appears in true shape when it is parallel to the planes of projection, as line when
it is perpendicular to the plane and fore-shortened when it inclined to the plane.
✓ A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an oblique skew line and it does not
show in true shape in any of the views, but each of the bounding edges shows interval length in one
view and is fore shortened in the other two views.
When an inclined or oblique line is to be projected it is helpful to identify and draw the end points and then joining
them to obtain the projection.

Parallel

Inclined

Fig. 7.13 Orthographic Projection of objects with inclined surface.

Oblique

rd
Fig. 7.12 Orthographic Projection of Parallel, Inclined and Oblique Surfaces (3 Angle)
7.3.5 Orthographic Projections of Hidden Surfaces
To describe an object with complex internal features completely, a drawing should contain lines representing all
the edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects. In any view there will be some parts of the object that
cannot be seen from the position of the observer, as they will be covered by portion of the object closer to the
observer’s eye. The edges, intersections, and surface limits of these hidden parts are indicated by a
discontinuous line called a dashed line or hidden line. Particular attention should be paid to the execution of
these dashed lines. If carelessly drawn, they ruin the appearance of a drawing.

Fig. 7.13 Orthographic Projection of Pbjects with Hidden Surfaces (3rd Angle)

7.3.6 Orthographic Projections of Curved Surfaces and Holes

To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections, center lines are commonly utilized. All the center lines
are the axes of symmetry.
✓ Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the axis drawn as center line before the part is drawn.
✓ Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two mutually perpendicular center lines.

rd
Fig. 7.14 Orthographic Projection of Objects with Hole and Curved Surface (3 Angle)

7.3.7 Precedence of Lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden portions of the object may project to coincide with
visible portions. Center lines may occur where there is a visible or hidden out line of some part of the object. Since
the physical features of the object must be represented full and dashed lines take precedence over all other lines
since visible out line is more prominent by space position, full lines take precedence over dashed lines. A full line
could cover a dashed line, but a dashed line could not cover a full line. When any two lines coincide, the one that
is more important to the readability of the drawing takes precedent over the other. The following line gives the
order of precedence of lines.
1. Full line
2. Dashed line
3. Careful line or cutting – plane line
 4. Break lines
5. Dimension and extension lines.
6. Crosshatch lines.
7.3.8 Method of Obtaining Views
To obtain the front view of an object let the observer take a position in front of the object at an infinite distance.
✓ Let the object is being looked from an infinite distance, therefore all the rays of sight originated from
object will be parallel to each other.
✓ In case of 3rd angle projection, place an imaginary vertical plane in between the object and the observer
such that all the rays of sight cut the plane.
✓ In case of 1st angle projection the vertical plane should be placed behind the object such that all the rays
of sights, if extended backward, cut the plane.
✓ According to be shape of objects, join the points of intersection of the vertical plane and rays of sight. The
points which are connected by lines in original object should be connected in the vertical plane.
✓ Thus a front view of the object will be obtained on the vertical plane.
All other 5 views can be obtained in similar way. The plane of projection (vertical, in case of front view) should
be parallel to the face for which views are being drawn. For example, in case of top view the plane will be
horizontal.
 Fig. 7.15 Method of Obtaining Views
7.3.9 Methods of Projecting Views
There are several methods of projecting views in orthographic projection which are shown in Figure 7.18. In the
projection there is a relationship of different views. It is usual practice to draw the front view first, then top and
side views are drawn with the help of the vertical and horizontal projection lines. This can be done using T-square,
set-squares and compasses. Here only the figure (C) requires the use of compass in addition to T-squares and
setsquares.
 Fig. 7.16 Different Methods of Projecting Views

The method shown in fig. 7.18 (A) and 7.18 (B) are mostly used. This method is sometimes said to be “the diagonal
line method”.

7.3.10 Spacing Between the Views

In case of figure 7.18 (A) the spacing between views are kept equal where in case of fig. 7.18 (B) the spacing
between the front and right side view is wider than that in front and top view. The spacing between views has to
be determined or decided beforehand and if equal spacing is needed then fig. (A) can be followed and if a different
spacing is needed then fig. (B) can be followed. However, spacing to provide between views depends on ✓ Space
required for dimensioning.
✓ Space required for naming the views.
✓ Space required for writing essential notes.
Sufficient space should be provided in order to give dimensions avoiding any crowding and also excessive space
should be avoided. If not mentioned or required otherwise 30mm-40mm spacing can be provided between two
successive views.
7.3.11 Steps for Projecting Views by Diagonal Line Method
Fig. 7.19 describes the steps of projecting views (3rd angle) by diagonal line method. The steps are:
✓ Step 1: Following method described in section 7.3.10 draw the front view on the drawing paper.
✓ Step 2: Project vertically upward lines from every point of the front view where there is a change in shape.
✓ Step 3: Draw the top view according to the shape of object within its extent enclosed by the vertical
projected lines.
✓ Step 4: Project horizontal lines from every point of the front view where there is a change in shape.
 ✓ Step 5: Draw a diagonal line (a line at an angle 450 with horizontal) using set-square. Position of this line
depends on the spacing requirement between side view and front view. If equal spacing is required then
the line should originate at the corner of the front view.
✓ Step 6: Project horizontal lines toward the diagonal line from every point of the top view where there is a
change in shape. These lines will cut the diagonal line.
✓ Step 7: From every point of intersection draw perpendicular lines toward the horizontal projection lines
drawn from the front view.
✓ Step 8: Now, the area for side view (left/right) will be enclosed. Draw the shapes of left/right view. ✓
Step 9: Erase unnecessary lines and darken the views.
It is to be noted that for 1st angle projection the lines should be projected according to position of views. For
example to draw top view, vertically downward lines need to be projected from front view so that the top view is
generated below the front views; for getting right side view horizontal lines from front view are to be projected
toward left and so on.

Fig. 7.17 Diagonal Line Method for Projecting Views (3rd angle)
Fig. 7.17 Diagonal Line Method for Projecting Views (3rd angle) Contd.
7.3.12 Worked-out Examples of Orthographic Views
7.3.13 Limitation of Multi View Projection
Multi view orthographic projections generally show length along two principle axis in any particular view. The
length along the third axis cannot be shown in same view. This makes it difficult to understand them and only
technically trained persons can understand the meaning of these orthographic views. A layman cannot imagine
the shape of the object from orthographic projections.
To make the shape of an object easy to understand for both technical persons and non-technical laymen pictorial
projections are used. Most commonly used pictorial drawing is Isometric drawing.

7.4 Details of Isometric Projection

Isometric means "equal measure ". Isometric projection is that type of pictorial or single view projection of
object where all three principal edges (along height, width and depth) or axes are projected with equal 120°
angles. When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale or otherwise if the object is actually projected on a
plane of projection, it is an isometric projection.

7.4.1 Principle of Isometric Projection

An isometric projection is an orthographic projection, but it is obtained in such a way that all the principle axes
are projected in the same view with reduction of their lengths in the same proportion. For this purpose the object
is so placed that its principle axes are equally inclined to the plane of projection. In other words, the front view of
a cube, resting on one of its corners is the isometric projection of the cube as shown in fig. 7.21. In comparison to
orthographic projection, an object is rotated by 450 with respect to its front face and then tilted forward or backward
by 35016’ and then its view is drawn and that is its isometric view. But as the object is tilted all the lengths
projected on the plane appears to be shortened and thus they are drawn shortened in isometric projection.

Fig. 7.18 Object Placement in Isometric Projection

7.4.2 Isometric Scale
As discussed, in case of isometric projection,
due to the tilting effect a line does not project to
its true length on the picture plane. In the
isometric projection of a cube shown in Fig.
7.21, when the cube is tilted backward, the top
face ABCD is sloping away from the observer
and hence the edges of the top face will appear
fore-shortened. The true shape of the triangle
DAB is represented by the triangle DPB. The
extent of reduction of an isometric line can be
easily found by construction of a diagram called
isometric scale. For this, reproduce the triangle
DPA as shown in Fig. 7.22. Mark the divisions
of true length on DP. Through these divisions
draw vertical lines to get the corresponding
points on DA. The divisions of the line DA give
dimensions to isometric scale. From the triangle
ADO and PDO in Fig. 7.21, the ratio of the
isometric length to the true length,
° = = 0.816
° Fig. 7.19 Isometric Projection of a Cube
In words, the isometric axes are reduced in the
ratio 1:0.816 or 82% approximately.

Fig. 7.20 Isometric Scale

7.4.3 Lines in Isometric Projection
The following are the rules for presenting the lines in isometric projection:
1. The lines that are parallel on the object are parallel in the isometric projection.
2. Vertical lines on the object appear vertical in the isometric projection.
3. Horizontal lines on the object are drawn at an angle of 30° with the horizontal in the isometric projection.
4. A line parallel to an isometric axis is called an isometric line and it is foreshortened to 82%.
5. A line which is not parallel to any isometric axis is called non-isometric line and the extent of
foreshortening of non-isometric lines is different if their inclinations with the vertical planes are different.

Fig. 7.22 Isometric Scale

Fig. 7.21 Lines and Axes in Isometric Projection

7.4.4 Isometric Drawing

When an isometric projection is
prepared with an ordinary scale, it is
called an isometric drawing. Drawing of
objects is seldom drawn in
true isometric projections, as the use
of an isometric scale is
inconvenient. Instead, a convenient
method in which the
foreshortening of lengths is ignored and
actual or true lengths are used to obtain
the projections, is applied which is
called isometric drawing or isometric
view. This is advantageous
because the measurement may be made
directly from a drawing.
The isometric drawing is 22.5% larger
than the isometric projection, but the
pictorial value is obviously the same in
both. An isometric drawing is so much
easier to execute and, for all practical
purposes, is just as satisfactory as the Fig. 7.22 Isometric Drawing and Isometric Projection
isometric projection.
7.4.5 Methods of Constructing Isometric Drawing
The methods used are:
1. Box method.
2. Off-set method.
In both the methods it must be always kept in mind that in isometric projection, vertical lines are drawn vertical
and the horizontal lines are drawn inclined 30° to the base line.

7.4.5.1 Box Method

When an object contains a number of non-isometric lines, the isometric drawing may be conveniently constructed
by using the box method. In this method, the object is imagined to be enclosed in a rectangular box and both
isometric and non-isometric lines are located by their respective points of contact with the surfaces and edges of
the box. It is always helpful to draw or imagine the orthographic views first and then proceed for isometric
drawing. Fig. 7.24 illustrates an example isometric drawing by box method.

Fig. 7.23 Isometric Drawing by Box Method

7.4.5.2 Off-set Method

Off-set method of making an isometric drawing is preferred when the object contains irregular curved surfaces.
In the off-set method, the curved feature may be obtained by plotting the points on the curve, located by the
measurements along isometric lines. Fig. 7.25 illustrates the application of this method.
 Fig. 7.24 Isometric Drawing by Off-set Method
7.4.6 Isometric Drawing of planes
Isometric drawing of planes can be obtained simply by keeping in mind that vertical lines will be vertical in
projection and horizontal lines will be at 300 inclined in projection. If there are some inclined lines in the plane
it will be helpful to enclose the plane with a rectangle and then obtain the projection with reference to the sides
of that rectangle.

7.4.6.1 Isometric Drawing of Rectangular Plane

Let us draw the isometric drawing of a rectangle of 100mm and 70mm sides if its plane is Vertical and Horizontal.

When the plane is vertical

✓ Step 1: Draw the given rectangle ABCD as shown in Fig. 7.26 (a)
✓ Step 2: Draw the side A D inclined at 30° to the base line as shown in Fig. 7.26 (b) and mark A D =
70mm.
✓ Step 3: Draw the verticals at A and D and mark off A B = D C = 100mm on these verticals.
✓ Step 4: Join BC which is parallel to AD. ABCD is the required isometric projection. This can also be
drawn as shown in Fig. 7.26(c). Arrows show the direction of viewing.
When the plane is horizontal
✓ Draw the sides AD and DC inclined at 30° to be base line and complete the isometric projection ABCD
as shown in Fig.9.IOd. Arrow at the top shows the direction of viewing.

Fig. 7.25 Isometric Drawing of Rectangular Plane

7.4.6.2 Isometric Drawing of Pentagonal Plane

Let us draw the isometric drawing of a regular pentagon of 25mm sides if its plane is Vertical and Horizontal.

✓ Step 1: Draw the given pentagon abcde and enclose it by a rectangle 1234 as shown in Fig. 7.27 (a).
 ✓ Step 2: Make the isometric drawing of the rectangle 1234 as described in fig. 7.26.
✓ Step 3: On the isometric drawing of rectangle locate the points A and B such that 1A = 1a and 1B = 1b.
✓ Step 4: Similarly locate points C, D and E such that 2C = 2c, 3D = 3d and 4E = 4e.
✓ Step 4: Join A, B, C, D, E sequentially; Now ABCDE is the required isometric view in vertical plane as
shown in fig. 7.27 (b). Similarly the fig. 7.27 (c) can be obtained for horizontal plane.

Fig. 7.26 Isometric Drawing of Pentagonal Plane

7.4.6.3 Isometric Drawing of a Circular Plane
Let us draw the isometric drawing of a circle of 60mm radius if its surface is vertical and horizontal.

✓ Step 1: Draw the given circle and enclose it by a square 1234 as shown in Fig. 7.28 (a).
✓ Step 2: Make the isometric drawing of the square 1234 that will form a rhombus.
✓ Step 3: Mark the mid-points A, B, C and D of each sides of the rhombus as shown in fig 7.28 (b).
✓ Step 4: Draw longest diagonal 2-4 and join point 3 and A. The line 3-A will intersect the line 2-4 at point
M. Similarly obtain the intersecting point N.
✓ Step 5: With center M and radius MA draw an arc AB. With center N and radius NC draw and arc CD. ✓
Step 6: With center 1 and radius 1-C draw an arc BC. With center 3 and radius 3-D draw an arc AD.
✓ Step 7: The ellipse ABCD is the required isometric drawing of the circle on horizontal plane. Similarly
the isometric views can be obtained on vertical planes as shown in fig. 7.28 (c)

Fig. 7.27 Isometric Drawing of Circular Plane

7.4.7 Isometric Drawing of Solids

Before drawing of an isometric view of a solid object it is always convenient to draw the orthographic views first.
Then the isometric box is constructed and the orthographic views are reproduced on the respective faces of the
box. Finally by joining the points relating to the object and erasing unnecessary lines the isometric view is
obtained.

7.4.7.1 Points to be Remembered for Isometric drawing

✓ Three isometric axes will be at 1200 angle with each other.
 ✓ Height will be along vertical isometric axis.
✓ Length and width will be along isometric axes each being 300 inclined with horizontal.
✓ Isometric lines will be in their true length.
✓ Non-isometric lines will be either in enlarged or reduced length.
✓ No hidden line will be shown in isometric drawing unless necessary.

7.4.8 Steps for Drawing Isometric View

Let us draw isometric view of a solid object as shown in fig. 7.30 (a)
✓ Step -1: Draw the orthographic views. In a specific isometric drawing three maximum faces can be shown.
Usually front view, top view and either left or right side view are selected.
✓ Step -2: Draw three isometric axes. Use set square to make 300 angles.
✓ Step -3: Cut corresponding distances equal to major (maximum) length, width and height of object from
each isometric axis. Remember to cut height along vertical isometric axis. Choose length and width
according to given/chosen views. If right side view is given/chosen, then length of front view should be
chosen along the left side axis of vertical axis so as to allow drawing of right side view along right side
axis.
✓ Step -4: Draw an isometric box. To do this, draw 2 parallel lines of each isometric axis at the end points
of other two axes.
✓ Step -5: Draw given views (front, top and left/right) on the corresponding face of the isometric box.
✓ Step -6: Look through the individual views and identify non-existing lines and surfaces. Erase the
nonexisting lines. While erasing a line, take the question in mind “why I have drawn this earlier?” If you
erase a line from isometric box, there must be a visible line parallel to that line.
✓ Step -7: Finally, darken the visible lines. Compare the orthographic views with your obtained Isometric
views. Check if any logical line/surface is missing. If not, you are done.
 Step- 1

(b)

Step -2

Step -3

(c ) (d)

Step- 4

( e)

Fig. 7.28 Steps for Isometric Drawing of Solid Object (Contd.)

 Step- 5

( f)

Step- 6

( g)

Step- 7

( h)
Fig. 7.28 Steps for Isometric Drawing of Solid Object (Contd.)
7.4.9 Worked-out Examples of Isometric Drawing

1. Draw isometric view from the orthographic views given in figures below:
Solution:
See section 7.3.12 for more examples.

2. Draw isometric view of a hexagonal prism 30mm sides and 60mm height.

Solution:
Draw the orthographic
views first. Following
section 7.4.7.2,
complete the
projection. For
projecting the
hexagonal top view on
the top face of
isometric box follow
section 7.4.6.2.
 3. Draw isometric view of a cone with base diameter 30mm and axis 50 mm long.

Solution:
Draw the orthographic views first. Following section 7.4.7.2, complete the projection. For projecting the circular
top view on the top face of isometric box follow section 7.4.6.3.

Exercise and Assignments:

1. Draw orthographic views of the following objects (wooden objects available):

1 2

3 4
5 6

8
7

9
1
 11 12

2. Draw orthographic views for the following pictorial views (Assume arbitrary dimension):
1 2

3 4
 5 6

7 8

9 10
 11

3. Draw necessary orthographic views to represent

i. A reading table ii. Sitting
chair iii. Twin seats of university
bus.
iv. Laptop computer v.
Wall clock. vi.
Refrigerator. vii. D-
box of HSTU. viii. A
pentagonal pyramid. ix. A
Cylindrical pen holder.
x. An oval shaped paper-weight.

4. Draw isometric view of a rectangular plane having length of sides as 10 cm and 15 cm when its plane is
(a) horizontal and (b) vertical.
5. Draw isometric view of a square prism with a side of base 5cm and axis 15 cm long when the axis is (a)
vertical and (b) horizontal.
6. Draw isometric view of a cylinder with base diameter 10cm and axis 15 cm long.
7. A pentagonal pyramid of side of base 30mm and height 70mm is resting with its base on horizontal
plane. Draw the isometric drawing of the pyramid.
8. Draw isometric views of
i. A reading table
ii. Sitting chair
iii. Twin seats of university bus.
iv. Laptop computer
v. Wall clock. vi. Refrigerator. vii. D-box of HSTU. viii. A pentagonal
pyramid.
ix. A Cylindrical pen holder.
x. An oval shaped paper-weight.
9. Prepare isometric drawing from the given orthographic views. (Use assumed value for missing
dimensions)

2
1

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