Risk management and emergency

response
 Outline
• Risk management introduction
• Health risk assessment
• Safety risk assessment/ management
• Business continuity planning
• Emergency response
• Community action levels
 Risk management
• Risk can be defined as the likelihood of occurrence of an
undesirable event combined to the magnitude of its impact
– Risk= probability * consequence
• Risk management: the process of analyzing exposure to
risk and determining how to best handle such exposure
with systematic application of management policies,
procedures and practices
– Risk identification
– Risk analysis
– Eliminating or reducing risks
– Financing risks
– Administering the risk management process
 Risk management objectives
• Preloss objectives
– Economy: minimizing the economic expenditures consistent with
postloss goals for safety programs, risk identification and analysis,
insurance premiums and so forth
– Reduction in anxiety: reducing the fear and worry over potential
losses
– Meeting externally imposed obligations: satisfying safety, health
and environmental regulations; satisfying employee-benefit plans,
acquiring required insurance
– Social responsibility: meeting the demands for good citizenship to
employees, customers, supplier, and the community. Maintaining
public image and social consciousness
 Risk management objectives
• Postloss objectives
– Survival: being able to resume some operations following a loss
– Continuity of operations: to return to or continue full operations
keeping an interruption. There may be reduction in earnings
– Earnings stability: keeping earnings stable through continued
operations with cost control or from funds to replace lost earnings
– Continued growth: finding ways to expand growth by product
development. Market expansion, acquisition and mergers
– Social responsibility: taking care of employees, customers,
suppliers and the public. Maintaining public relations and public
image
 Hazard risk assessment – step one
• Hazard identification
– Physical/chemical properties of the toxic substance:
solubility, chemical reactivity, molecular size, ion/non-
ion state
– Source of toxicity information
– Human data
• Epidemiological studies: prospective study, retrospective study
• Monitoring and surveillance
• Monitoring and surveillance
• Clinical studies
 Hazard risk assessment – step one
• Hazard identification
– Toxicological study
– Acute toxicity studies: NOEL, NOAEL, LD50, LC50
– Chronic toxicity studies: mutagenic, teratogenic,
carcinogenic, other biological effects (heart failure,
liver disease, skin rash, etc.)
– Species of test animal
– Other variables affecting toxicity: age, sex, health
– In vitro tests
– Molecular structure- activity relation
– Other confounding factors: diet, lifestyle, occupation
 Hazard risk assessment – step two
• Dose-response assessment
– Human studies
• Epidemiologic studies
• Clinical studies
– Animal studies
• Minimal effects determination
• Dose-response modeling
• Special issues, including interspecies conversion and high-to
low-dose extrapolation
– Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK)
studies/modeling
How to obtain safe human dose?
Address uncertainty
 Health risk assessment – step three
• Exposure assessment
– General information for each chemical
• Identify: molecular formula and structure, other identifying characteristics
• Chemical and physical properties
– Sources
• Characterization of production and distribution
• Uses
• Disposal
• Summary of environmental releases
– Exposure pathways and environmental fate
• Transport and transformation
• Identification of principal pathways of exposure
• Identification of principal pathways of exposure
• Predicting environmental distribution
 Health risk assessment – step three
• Exposure assessment
– Measured or estimated concentrations
• Uses of measurements
• Estimation of environmental distribution
– Exposed populations
• Population size and characteristics
• Population location
• Population habits
– Exposure to toxic substance
• Route of exposure: skin, inhalation, ingestion, injection
• Duration of exposure
• Frequency of exposure
• Exposure to other toxic substance
 Health risk assessment – step four
• Risk characterization
• Mathematical
• Unit and population risk estimates
• Threshold determination (e.g., safety factor approach, NOEL)
• Statistical characterization of uncertainty
– Formal decision analysis
– Inter-risk comparisons
– Qualitative-panel reviews
– Qualitative-informal scientific advice
– Risk-benefit analysis
Safe human dose estimation:
example
 Risk management: key elements
• Hazard identification
• Consequence analysis
• Control or treatment responses (management)
• Procedures
– Operating
– Maintenance
– Testing and inspection
– Change control
• Training
• Emergency planning
• Accident investigation
• audits
 Hazard identification
• Screening and ranking methodologies: early stages
of process development
– Hazard checklists or indices: Dow/Mond
• Structured approaches: later stage of design or
during operation of a process
– FMEA, what-if analysis, HAZOP, etc.
• Mathematical and probabilistic techniques:
reviewing complex interdependent systems
– FTA, ETA, etc.
 Risk analysis approaches
• Qualitative approach expresses probability and/or impact
using and ordinal rating system to denote order
– Adjectives: high, medium, low
– Colors: red, yellow, green
• Quantitative approach expresses probability and/or impact
using numeric data
– 80% probability of occurrence
– $10,000 impact
– Three-week delay
• Semi-quantitative approach: use qualitative for probability
and quantitative for impact, or use qualitative analysis for
some risks and quantitative analysis for other risks
 Risk analysis – qualitative approach
• Use description, requires definitions, rules, standards and processes
• Based on judgment, intuition, and experience
• Subjective, lacks hard numbers to justify return on investment
• Loose relationships
• Very limited analysis possible/limited resources
• Simple (non-specialized), fast and easy to administer and understand
for every one involved
• Start point for other approaches
• Rank and prioritize risks based on consequences
• Difficult to enforce uniformly across organization and projects
 Qualitative risk analysis tools
• Interviewing
• Expect judgment
• Sensitivity analysis
• Job safety analysis
• FTA, etc.
• Analysis based on records of the operation
• Checklists and questionnaires
• Flowcharts
• Physical inspections
• SWOT analysis
 Risk analysis – quantitative
approach
• Determine numerical values/data/hard data to costs
• Estimate probability of event occurring
• Defined relationships of components of the systems
• True mathematical analysis possible
• Resource intensive
• Potentially robust output/specialized
• Compute annual loss exposure (ALE) (via probability *
likely loss)
• Survey applicable controls and their costs
• Project annual savings from control
 Characterisitcs of quantitative risk
analysis
• Can be unreliable/inaccurate/no accurate
probability database
• Probability is usually unique to case
• Expected loss hard to establish
• More time consuming,; requires estimation
• Misleading in that numbers may give appearance
of precision and specificity
• Difficult if team resists working with numbers
• Substantially more valuable in developing risk
response strategies and reserves
 Quantitative risk analysis tools
• Expected monetary value analysis
• Decision tree/event trees
• Delphi (expert’s system)
• Probability distribution
• Bayesian analysis
• Monte Carlo Simulation
 Semi-quantitative risk analysis
• Descriptors – some definition
• Perception – knowledge – other sources
• Judgments – experience – data
• Structured relationships
• Some structure to analysis
• Ranking based on qualitative and quantitative
information
• Less-specialized (but traps)
 Sources of uncertainty
• Failure to consider specific scenarios
• Missing components in the hazard identification
• Lack of knowledge on risk probability or its
impact
• Assumptions may not be granted
• Improper hazard analysis method
• Improper parameter used for risk models or
computer simulation statistical analyses
 Uncertainty analysis methods
• Initiating events
– Classical estimation by distribution functions
– Bayesian techniques
• Plant systems analysis
– Fault tree analysis
• Classical estimation by distribution function
• Method of moments
– Event tree analysis
• Discrete probability distribution (DPO) arithmetic
• Consequence analysis
– Complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF)
– Sampling statistics (Monte Carlo)
 The TARA strategy for risk
management
• Transfer the risk
– Mechanism to exchange the uncertainty of financial risk for the certainty
of a premium
– Analyze insurance options
– Sharing of investment
• Accept the risk
– Low impact
– Low probability
• Reduce the risk
– Business continuity planning
– Controls to inhibit impact threats
– Controls to compensate for impact of threats
• Avoid the risk
– Remove the cause or source of threat
 Effective risk management
• Credible
• Organized and integrated the EHS risk
management program with the business
• Thorough (addressing the concerns of the public)
• Relevant, doable and economical
• Based on existing technology (with flexibility to
adapt to later advances)
• Publicized
• Visibility of EHS professionals on influencing,
advising and supporting the business
 Risk financing
• Insurance
• Self-insurance: self funding, no risk transfer
• Exposures: candidate for insurance
– Product liability
– Environmental impairment liability
– Property
– Boiler and machinery
– Workers’ compensation
– Business interruption
– Directors’ and officers’ liability
– Vehicle liability
– General liability
– Inland marine (陆上运输保险)
– Fidelity (诚实保证保险)
Alternative risk financing techniques
• Cash flow plans
– Paid loss “retro”
– Incurred loss ratio
– Split payment plans
– Compensating balance plans
• Fronting plans
– The insured pays a fee to required certificates
– The insured signs a letter agreeing to pay the insurer for any losses
• Banking plans
– Can spread losses over long periods of time
– Pay an initial negotiated premium
– Final cost determined by a retrospective formula with annual adjustments
• Captives
– Insure the exposures of its owners or its owners’ affiliates
• Risk retention groups and risk purchase groups
 Business continuity planning
(BCP) and emergency response
 Crisis and emergency
• Natural events
– Cold weather (ice storms, blizzards)
– Hot weather
– Drought
– Tornadoes and hurricanes
– Floods
– Earthquakes
• Man-made events
– Hazardous material release
– Workplace violence
– Acts of terrorism: civil disorder
– Robbery
– Bomb threats
– Power outages
– Transportation crashes
– Fire
 How likely your company will be
affected?
• Of the companies which suffer a disorder:
– 51% go out of business in 2 years
– 72% go out of business in 3 years
– 43% never re-open
– Only 6% survive
• 20% of small to medium companies suffer a
major disaster every 5 years
 ER or BCP?
Corporate Crisis management Brand, image & reputation
protection, legal and
financial stability

Company Business continuity IT disruption/utility

disruption, supply chain,
facility unavailable, key
equipment failure
Field/site Emergency Site response, facility
response evaluation
 What is BCP?
• An ongoing process supported by senior management and
funded to ensure that the necessary steps are taken to
identify the impact of potential losses, maintain viable
recovery strategies and recovery plans, and ensure
continuity of services through personnel training, plan
testing and maintenance
• A program that tells you:
– What to do
– Who will do it
– How to do it, and
– When to do it when the emergency hits
 Regulations
• US OSHA 29 CFR 1910.38 emergency action plan:
– Emergency plans are needed
– Evacuate during fires
– Facility has fixed fire-suppression
– Must comply with 29 CFR 1910
• 119 – process safety management
• 120 – hazwoper
• 157 – portable fire extinguisher
• 272 – grain handling
• 1047 – ethylene oxide
• 1050 – methlenedianiline
• 1051 – 1, 3-butadiene
11 or more employees – must have a written plan
 Regulations
• US EPA 40 CFR 264.50 contingency plan
and emergency procedures
– Emergency planning and community right to
know act (1986)
– Hazardous waste regulations (RCRA)
– § 264.50 contingency plans for generators
– § 264.50 emergency procedures for treatment,
storage and disposal facilities (TSDFs)
 Goal of emergency planning
• Protection of people
• Protection of property
• Protection of environment
• Resume normal operation
 BCP outlines
• Organize the planning process
– Problem definition – disaster recovery vs. business continuity
– Business continuity objective (s) and requirements
– Business continuity definitions, terms and assumptions, scopes, and cost
of project
– Business continuity steering committee
– Business continuity policies
• Minimum service levels defined
– Risk analysis and controls
– Develop a business impact analysis (BIA)
– Identify time-sensitive business function
– Acceptable level of service defined
– Limitations on manufacturing downtime
– Data loss limitations identified (recovery window determined )
 BCP outlines
• Recovery strategies
– Alternative business continuity strategies
– Cost-benefit analysis and selected strategy
– Business continuity program budget
• Data collection & documentation
– Plan scope and objectives
– Business recovery organization (BRO) and responsibilities
– Major plan components – format and structure
– Scenario to execute plan
– Escalation, notification, and plan activation
– Vital records and off-site addressed
– Plan administration
 BCP outlines
• Customize & finalize the plan
– Emergency response procedures (evacuation)
– Command, control and emergency operations center (crisis
management)
– Delegation/designation of authority
– Emergency resumption, recovery and restoration procedures
– Vendor contracts and contacts
– Purchasing information for recovery resources
• Test and maintain the plan
– Exercise program and objectives
– Exercise plans, scenarios and actual exercises plan evaluation
– Training, corporation awareness program and vehicles fro
dissemination
 Emergency response plan
• Roles and responsibilities of personnel
• Equipment to be used to contain and mitigate
– Safety and health plan
• Outline of incident command and emergency response team
• Alarm sequencing and mutual agreements
• Process shutdown and evacuation procedures
• Containments and mitigation
• Public relations and media response
• Site security and traffic plan
• Notification of authorities
• Triage, decontamination, and transfer of injured
• Medical treatment and case management
• Recordation and preservation of records
 Health and safety plan
• Organization and incident command structure
– Role and tasks
– Coordination
• Qualification and training for each role
• Medical qualification and fitness for duty
• Approach and mitigation plans
– Hazard zones
– Evaluation and monitoring
– PPE
– Equipment
– Decontamination
• Abort criteria
• Communication
• Emergency medial treatment and first aid
 Hazmat emergency response team
training
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120
• Hazardous waste operations
– Initial
• General site workers
– 40 hours
– 3 days of supervised field experience
• Occasional workers = 24 hours
– Refresher = 8 hours annually
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• Emergency response to hazardous substance
releases – training
– First responder – awareness level
– First responder – operations level
– Hazardous materials technician
– Hazardous materials specialist
– Incident commander
– Skilled support personnel
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• First responder – awareness level
– Witness or discover a hazmat release
– Can only initiate an emergency response sequence
– Training
• What are hazardous materials and risks associated
• Potential outcome of a hazmat incident
• Recognize the present of a hazardous material
• Understand their role as being trained to the awareness level,
site security and the emergency response guidebook (ERG)
• No training time regulated by OSHA
• Applicable for everyone in the plant
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• First responder – operations level
– Respond to initial release to protect nearby persons, property or the
environment
– Defensive actions, without trying to stop the release
– Contain the release from a safe distance
– 8 hour of training , or “objectively demonstrates competency”
(means more or less training hours to attain the level) and the
employer shall so certify in:
• Knowledge of basic hazards and risk assessment
• PPE selection
• Understanding basic hazmat terms
• Basic control, containment and confinement
• Basic decontamination procedures
• Understand relevant standard operating and termination procedures
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• Hazardous materials technician
– More aggressive approach than an operations level first responder
– plug, patch and stop the release
– Receive at least 24 hours, equal to that of the first responder, at the
operation level in addition have competency in the following areas
and the employer shall so certify:
• Function in the incident command system
• Select PPE
• Hazard and risk assessment techniques
• Advanced control, containment and/or confinement operations
• Decon, procedures – or lack of decon
• Termination procedures
• Basic of chemical and toxicological terminology and behavior
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• Hazardous materials specialist
– Respond with and support hazmat
– Direct or specific knowledge of various substances
– Liaison between with federal, state and local governments
– Receive at least 20 hours, equal to that of the hazmat techs in
addition have competency in the following areas and the employer
shall so certify;
• Select PPE
• Specialized control, containment and/or confinement operations
• Decon procedures
• Ability to develop site safety and health plan
• Understand chemical and toxicological terminology and behavior
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• On scene incident commander (CEO???)
– Assume control of the incident
– Shall receive at least 24 hours of training equal to the
first responder operations level and in addition have
competency in the following areas and employer shall
so certify:
• Know and able to implement the employer’s ICS and ERP
• Know and understand the hazards and risks associated with
workers working in chemical protective clothing
• Know and understand state ERP and the federal regional
responds team
• Know and understand the importance of decontamination
procedures
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• Skilled support personnel
– Skilled in the operation of certain equipment, such as earth moving
of lifting, who are needed temporarily to perform immediate
emergency support which cannot reasonably be performed in a
timely fashion by an employer’s own employee or a contractor
• Are not require at the trained
• Initial briefing at the site
– PPE
– Chemical hazards involved
– Duties to be performed
• All other appropriate safety and health precautions provided to the
employer’s own employees shall be used to assure the safety and
health of these personnel
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• Refresher training
– All hazmat responders, awareness through incident
commander, shall:
• Receive annual refresher training of sufficient content and
duration to maintain their competencies, or
• Demonstrate competency yearly
– A statement shall be made of the training or
competency, if a statement is made the employer shall
keep a record of the methodology used to demonstrate
competency
 OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 (q)
• Trainers
– Trainers who instruct any of the responders levels shall
have satisfactorily completed a training course for
teaching the subjects they are expected to teach, such as
• US national fire academy, or
• Training and/or academic credentials
• Instruction experience necessary to demonstrated competent
instructional skills, and
• Good command of the subject matter of the course they are to
teach
 ER team: PPE selection
• Level A
– Positive pressure SCBA or supplied air
– Totally encapsulated suit – gas tight
– Inner and outer gloves
– Chemical resistant boots w/protection toe
– Hard hat
• Level B
– Positive pressure SCBA or supplied air
– Hooded coveralls or two-piece splash clothing (liquid tight, not gas
tight)
– Inner and outer gloves
– Chemical resistant boots w/ protection toe
– Hard hat
 ER team: PPE selection
• Level C
– Full case or half face
– APR hooded coveralls or two-piece splash clothing
– Inner and outer gloves
– Chemical resistant boots w/ protective toe
– Hard hat
• Level D
– Coveralls
– Gloves
– Chemical resistant boots w/ protection toe
– Safety glasses w/ splash goggles
– Hard hat
 Incident command system (ICS)
• What is ICS
– Tool for command, control, and coordination of resources at the
scene of an emergency
– Management tool consisting of procedures for organizing
personnel, facilities, equipment and communication at the scene of
an emergency
• ICS is NOT
– Means to obtain control or authority for other agencies or
departments
– Way to subvert the normal chain of command within a department
or agency
– Too big and cumbersome to be used in small everyday events
– Restricted to use by government and departments
 Incident command system (ICS)
• ICS origin
– 1970 South California Wildfires
• 600,000 acres, 772 structures, 16 facilities
• Congress funded study to analyze problems
– Lack of common organization
– Poor on-scene and inter-agency communications
– Inadequate joint planning
– Lack of valid and timely intelligence
– Inadequate resource management
– Limited prediction capacities
 Incident command system (ICS)
• Effective span of control
– Effort to minimize over tasking the IC
– Good decision making
– Good planning
– Good execution
– 2-7 direct reports
– Optimum of 5
• Modular format
• Common terminology
• Integrated communication
• Comprehensive resource management
 Incident command system (ICS)
• Public information officer • Planning
• Safety officer – Looks forward hours and
days
– Authority to shut down
incident site • Logistics
• Liaison – Obtains what is needed
– Works with other agencies – Support of responders
– “Keeps them off the IC’s – Support of planning
back” • Finance
• Operations – What has been spent
– Mitigation – What will be spent
– Remediation – Start paying
 National incident management
system (NIMS)
• September 11, 2001
• March 2004
– Mandatory for all governmental agencies 9federal, state and local)
– Presidential order requests private companies to participate in NIMS
– Now part of the national response plan
• NIMS
– aligns command, control organization structures, terminology,
communication protocols and resources
– Use for all incidents
– Personnel accountability and management
– Single resources
– Strike team – same kind and type
– Task force – combination of single resources
 Establishing and managing hazard
zones
• Exclusion zone/ hot zone
• PPE requirements
– Activity specific
• Personnel must be trained
• Contamination reduction zone
– Personnel must be trained
– Personnel protective equipment
– One level lower than hot zone or level D
– Escape or APR respirators available
– Evacuations
 Hazard zones
• Support zone/ cold zone
– No training
– No PPE
– No evacuations
• Establishing zones
– Air monitoring
– Operations
– Natural barriers
– Barrier tape
 Decontamination
• Decontamination
– Always dependent on the product/accident
• Decontaminate for safety
• Decontaminate for reuse (tools, equipment, level A suite, etc.)
– Dry or wet methods
– PPE – one level lower than that required in exclusion
zone
– Emergency Decon (heat, heart attack, PPE failure,
exposure, etc.)
• Unexpected events
• Injured workers
Air monitoring: where to start?
Emergency response: miscellaneous
• OSHA: 10% LEL hazardous atmosphere
20% LEL stop work and leave
immediately
• Goals of emergency planning
– Protection of people
– Protection of property
– Protection of environment
– Resume normal operations
 Community action levels
• EPA national advisory committee
– Acute exposure guideline levels (AEGL)
• Department of energy
– Temporary emergency exposure limits (TEEL)
• American industrial hygiene association
– Emergency response planning guidelines
(ERPG)
 AEGLs
• Acute exposure guideline levels
(AEGLs)
– Represent threshold exposure
limits for the general public
and are applicable to
emergency exposure periods
ranging from 10 min to 8 hours
• Three levels: AEGL-1, AEGl-2,
AEGL-3
– Developed for each of five
exposure periods (10 and 30
minutes, 1 hour, 4 hours and 8
hours) and are distinguished by
varying degrees of severity of
toxic effects
 AEGLs
• AEGL-1 is the airborne concentration (expressed as parts per cubic
meter (ppm or mg/m3) of a substance above which it is predicted that
the general population, including susceptible individuals, could
experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic
nonsensory effects. However, the effects are not disabling and are
transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure
• AEGL-2 is the airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m3) of
a substance above which it is predicted that the general population,
including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or
other serious, long-lasting adverse health effects or an impaired ability
to escape
• AEGL-3 is the airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m3) of
a substance above which it is predicted that the general population,
including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening
health effects or death
 AIHA ERPGs
• Emergency response planning guidelines
(ERPGs)
– Represent maximum levels for one-hour
exposures to the general public for emergency
planning and response
• There are three levels set by the ERPG
committee for each chemical
 ERPGs
• ERPG-1 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is
believed that nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hr
without experiencing other than mild transient adverse health effects or
perceiving a clearly defined, objectionable odor
• ERPG-2 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is
believed that nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hr
without experiencing or developing irreversible or other serious health
effects or symptoms which could impair an individual’s ability to take
protective action
• ERPG-3 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is
believed that nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hour
without experiencing or developing life-threatening health effects
 Department of energy TEELs
• Temporary emergency exposure limits
(TEELs)
– Developed for over 1250 chemicals for which
ERPG have not been developed
• Product of DOE subcommittee on
consequence and protective actions
(SCAPA)
 TEELs
• TEEL-0: the threshold concentration below which most people will
experience no appreciable risk of health effects
• TEEL-1: the maximum concentration in air below which it is believed
nearly all individuals could be exposed without experiencing other
than mild transient adverse health effects or perceiving a clearly
defined objectionable odor
• TEEL-2: the maximum concentration in air below which it is believed
nearly all individuals could be exposed without experiencing or
developing irreversible or other serious health effects or symptoms that
could impair their abilities to take protective action
• TEEL-4: the maximum concentration in air below which it is believed
nearly all individuals could be exposed without experiencing or
developing life-threatening health effects
 How do we use community action
levels?
• Requires professional judgment
• Understand the basis for the available guidelines
• Must take into account occupational guidelines
• Consider potential duration of exposure
• Consider feasibility and impact of evacuation decisions
• If exposure duration will be limited, uses the EPRG-2 to
advise on evacuations
• Evaluate physical/chemical properties, such as odor
threshold in consideration of community response to action
level
AEGL air model application
 What if there is no guidelines?
• Structure activity relationship (SAR)
– Based on the unknown relationship between
toxicity and chemical structure (H2O2, similar
structure with H2O, different in toxicity)
• Analogy
– Guidelines for chemical of similar classes or
with otherwise similar characteristics may be
used by analogy in the absence of specific
guidelines
Example: 2-Ethlhexannal release
• Moleecular formula: CH3(CH2)3CH(C2H5)CHO
• Synonym: 2-Ethylcapronaldehyde

• No OELs or community guidelines available

– Animal toxicity data were available for 2 2-
Ethylhexanal and other aldehydes
– OELs were available for other aldehydes
Example: 2-Ethlhexannal release
• Using SAR, develop your action level
– Toxicity data suggested that as the number of carbons
in the aldehyde molecule increased, the toxicity
decreased
– OELs of other aldehydes showed the same thing
• Propionaldehyde (3 carbons) = 20 ppm TLV
• Isobutyaldehyde (4 carbons) = 25 ppm WEEL
• Pentanal (5 carbons) = 50 ppm TLV
• 2-Ethylhexanal (8 carbons) = ???
– 2-Ethylhexanal was assigned a conservative action
level of 20 ppm
 Mutual aid agreement
• Mutual aid is the voluntary sharing of personnel and resources when an agency
can not deploy, sufficiently, its own resources to respond to an unusual
occurrence. Resources are then requested by the affected agency through a
recognized system established by the Master Mutual Aid Agreement and
Emergency Services Act. This cooperative system may be executed on a local,
countywide, regional, statewide, and interstate basis. Generally, there is no
reimbursement for providing mutual aid
• Mutual aid plans with neighboring companies and community agencies should
include establishing an organizational structure and communication system;
standardizing and identification system, procedures, and equipment (such as
fire hose couplings); formulating a list of available equipment; stocking
medical supplies; sharing facilities in an emergency; and cooperating in test
exercises and training
• Workers compensation, insurance, payment, equipment, etc.